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MACEBOGARDUS 

HISTORY OF THE 
UNITED STATES 




GEORGE WASHINGTON 



MACE-BOGARDUS 

HISTORY OF THE 
UNITED STATES 



By 
WILLIAM H. MACE 

Former Professor of History in Syracuse University, Author of 
Mace's School Histories and ''Method in History" 

and 
FRANK S. BOGARDUS 

Professor of History and Economics in the Indiana 

State Normal 




RAND MCNALLY & COMPANY 

CHICAGO NEW YORK 



Copyright, igzo, by 
Rand M^Nally & Company 

Copyright, 1921, by 
Rand M9Nally & Company 




SEP -'^ l^'-^l 



1911 



0)C!.A624:e51 



THE CONTENTS 

_- PAGE 

A List of the Maps xi 

Tlie Preface r"-^ J ^'^'•^^ .... xiii 

CHAPTER 

I. El KOPE Accidentally Finds America 

The People of Europe Just before Columbus . . 1 . . . i 

Europe's Knowledge of Distant Lands . . . ./ . . . '^ 

Columbus Seeks India and Finds Ameriia . / . . . 6 

Other Nations Try Their Fortunes . . . ./ . ... 9 

.Spain Leads in Exploration -"^ .... 10 

France a Rival of Spain ^ '3 

England Spain's Rival, too 14 

IL The Land and the People ok Early America . 17 
Natural Advantages and Disadvantages in Settling North 

America 17 

How the Indian Helped and Hindered tlie Settlers ... 19 

III. The Southern Colonies . . 23 

Making Experiments 23 

Getting a Foothold 26 

Virginia the King's Colony 28 

Maryland a New Kind of Colony 31 

The Two Carolinas the Home of Many Kinds of People- . 33 

Georgia the Real Barrier 36 

IV. New England Colonies 38 

The Pilgrim Fathers .38 

The Massachusetts Bay Colon >' 42 

Outside Danger Threatens 45 

New Hampshire and Maine 48 

Connecticut and New Haven ... 48 

Rhode Island the Most Democratic Colonj- 50 

V. The Middle Colonies 52 

The Struggle of the Dutch to Plant a Colony .... 52 

English Rule in New York 55 

New Sweden or Delaware 57 

New Jersey 58 

Pennsylvania the Great Quaker Colony 59 



\1 



THE CONTENTS 



Life 



CHAPTER 

VI. The Ways of Colonial 
The People 

Home Life and Pastimes 
Colonial Education 
Religious and Moral Life 
Industry and Commerce 
How the Colonies Were Governed 

VII. The B.\ttle for North Amkric 
The Rise of New France . 
Their First Conflicts . . . 
The Great Struggle 
The Meaning of the Victory 



VIII. vSeparation from England and Union amonc; the Colon 
Reasons for the Revolution .... 
The Americans Begin to Fight . 



IX. 



X. 



XL 



XII. 



XIII. 



The Struggle for the Rights of Man 

The Movement toward Independence . 
The British Trj' to Break the Power of th 
How France Came to Our Aid 
Irregular Warfare . . . ' . 
The War in the West and South 
Woman's Part in the Revolution 
The Need for a Stronger Government 
An Experiment in State Sovereignty 
Efforts for a Stronger Government . 
The Constitutional Convention . 
The States Ratify the Constitution 
Important Points in the Constitution 

The Beginnings of the Nation 

The American People (1790- 1800) . 
Washington the First President . 
The Origin of Our Foreign Policy 
Home Problems Again .... 



The Republican Party in Power . 

Jefferson in Control (1801-9) 

Peopling the West 

Troubles with Foreign Nations Again 

The War of 1812 

A War for Freedom of Commerce 



Middle Stat 



65 
65 
72 
76 
81 

85 
94 

97 

97 

100 

lOI 

108 



lES I 10 

. IIO 

119 



125 
125 
128 
132 

137 

149 

152 
152 

160 
163 
168 
168 

177 
181 

i«3 
187 
187 
188 
193 
199 
199 



THE CONTENTS Vli 

CHAPTER PAGE 

XIV. The Coming of a New Time 207 

Western Migration and Internal Improvements . . 207 

The Old States Feel the Touch of Life 214 

New States Introduce New Questions 216 

Latin America and the Monroe Doctrine 221 

The West Begins to Influence Politics 223 

XV. Social Changes 234 

Changes in the Manner of Living 234 

The Final Struggle to Keep the Balance of Power . . 237 

Educational Changes . - 241 

The First Signs of a National Literature 244 

An Era of Moral Reform 246 

The Growth of Industry 249 

XVI. The Question of Slavery 258 

Economic Contrasts 258 

Beginning to Agitate over Slavery 261 

The Texan Revolution. Territory on the Pacific . 264 
Shall the New Territory be Slave or Free? 270 

XVII. The Political Conflict 277 

The Kansas Struggle Drives the North and South Farther 

Apart 277 

The South Secedes. Conciliation Fails 287 

XVIII. The War between the Union and the Confederacy 292 

The War Begins 292 

The Blockade of Confederate Ports 296 

Campaign for the Opening of the Mississippi . . 299 

The Struggle between the Two Capitals 301 

Uprooting Slavery 304 

Decisive Battles of the War 307 

The War and Politics 311 

XIX. The End of the Struggle 315 

The Confederacy Gradually Wearing Out 315 

The Immediate Effects of the Struggle 323 

States Admitted Through vStress of War and Politics . 329 

XX. Reconstruction of the South 333 

The Struggle between the President and Congress . . 333 

XXI. New Problems in Politics 339 

New Questions Arise with Foreign Nations 339 

New Questions Cause New Parties 341 



vm 



THE CONTEXTS 



CHAPTER PAGE 

XXII. Economic Questions in Politics 352 

Money and Prices 352 

World's Fairs 354 

The Tariff and Politics 355 

Roosevelt in Office 357 

Conservation of Natural Resources 360 

The Progressive Movement 363 

XXIII. Our New Position in the World 367 

The War with Spain 367 

The Panama Canal 373 

America in the Far East 376 

International Arbitration 379 

The Newer Monroe DcK-tri-K^ 384 

XXIV. Economic Problems 388 

Immigration 388 

Organized Labor 393 

Factory Acts 398 

The Trusts 401 

XXV. Politic.\l Reforms 404 

Changes in Government . 404 

City Government 407 

Socialism 409 

The First Wilson Administration (1913-17) . . .411 

XXVI. The Growth of the Nation 414 

The Growth of the West. New States 414 

The Indians 421 

Growth in Education 424 

Growth of Reading 432 

XXVII. Growth in Trade and Indistrv 435 

Growth of Foreign Trade 435 

Growth of Industry 440 

Agriculture 440 

Manufacturing 447 

The Age of Inventions 457 

XXVIII. The W^orld War 460 

America Finds It Hard to Be Neutral 460 

America and the Allies Make War Together .... 468 

The American Government in the War 470 

America after the War 480 

iVloral and Social Effects of the War 483 



THE CONTENTS ix 

PAGE 

THE APPENDIX 

I. Notes 490 

II. Study Questions 520 

III. The "Mayflower" Compact 534 

IV. The Declaration or Independence 534 

V. Provisions of the Constitution 538 

VI. The Constitution of the United States 540 

VII. A Table of the States and Territories 554 

Date of Admission, Area, Population, etc. 

VIII. Growth of the United States 555 

The Increase in Town and City Population. 

IX. Gross Area of the United States 555 

X. Facts about Our Latest Dependencies 555 

XL A Table of the Presidents 556 

XIL Some Statistics of the United States and Territokiks . 557 

Representation in Congress, vSchool Statistics, etc. 

Thf Index 558 



A LIST OF THE COLORED PLATES 

PACK 

George Washington Frontispiece 

Columbus Before Queen Isabella Facing i 

The Settlement of St. Mary's by Calvert Facing 32 

The Wrath of Peter Stuyvesant Facing 56 

The Battle of Bunker Hill Facing 120 

Franklin at the Court of Louis XVI Facing 137 

Washington Resigning as Commander in Chief of the Army Facing 145 

The Battle Between the "Constitution" and the "Guer- 

riere" Facing 201 

Westward Ho! Facing 208 

The Boy Lincoln Facing 280 

A Reforested Area of Norway Spruce and White Pine, 

Planted Twenty-Four Years Ago Facing 361 

A Philippine Village Facing 368 

A Steamer Passing Through Gaillard Cut, Panama Canal Facing 376 

Immigrants Landing at Ellis Island, New York Facing 393 

A Scene Once Familiar on All Indian Reservations Facing 425 



A LIST OF THE MAPS 

PAGE 

Old Trade Routes to India 6 

The Four Voyages of Columbus 9 

Magellan and Drake's Voyages Around the World 10 

THE DISTRIBUTION OF INDIAX FAMILIES (in colors) 

Facing 17 

Early Trails to the Pacific Coast 19 

London and Plymouth Companies 2^t 

Territory Claimed by Virginia under the Charter of 1 609 .... 26 

The Carolina and Georgia Colonies 34 

The Settlements along the New England Coast 4^ 

The Region Ruled by Sir Edmund Andros 47 

The Connecticut and New Haven Colonies 50 

Early Settlements in Rhode Island and the Providence Plantations 51 

New Netherland and the " Five Nations " 54 

East and West Jersey and the Surrounding Colonies 58 

The Early Settlements in Pennsylvania 63 

NORTH AMERICA IN 1650 (in colors) Facing 65 

NORTH AMERICA IN 1750 (in colors) Facing 96 

EUROPEAN POSSESSIONS, 1763 (in colors) . Facing lo?, 

THE COLONIES DURING THE REVOLUTION (in colors) 

Facing 113 

The Battle Ground of the Minutemen 122 

The Military Movements in the Middle Colonies 128 

Burgoyne's Campaign 131 

The Campaigns Around Philadelphia 135 

The George Rogers Clark Expedition .139 

Campaigns in the South During the Revolution 141 

The War in Virginia 144 

THE UNITED STATES AT THE CLOSE OF THE REVOLU- 
TIONARY WAR (in colors) Facing 152 

The Northwest Territon.^ I57 

xi 



xii A LIST OF THE MAPS 

PAGE 

The Growth of the Settled Area in 1 790 and 1 800 168 

Early Trails and Post Roads 175 

The Lewis and Clark Expedition 191 

THE UNITED vSTATES AFTER THE LOUISIANA PURCHASE 

(in colors) Facing 193 

Campaigns in the North and East, War of 181 2 203 

THE UNITED STATES IN 1821 (in colors) / . . Furing 216 

The Coal Fields of the United States 253 

The Railroads of the United States in 1 860 255 

THE OREGON BOUNDARY DISPUTE (in colors) . Facing 265 

The Texas Boundary Dispute 268 

Territory Gained by the Treaty of Peace, 1848 269 

CHANGES IN SLAVE AND ' FREE TERRITORY, 1820-50 

(in colors) Facing 273 

UNION AND CONFEDERATE STATES, 1861 (in colors) Facing 289 

Campaigns for the Western States 301 

The Eastern Campaigns 303 

The Campaign Around Vicksburg 310 

The Georgia Campaign and the Red River Expedition 3^7 

TERRITORIAL GROWTH OF THE UNITED STATES (in 

colors) Facing 320 

Porto Rico and Cuba 367 

The Philippine Islands 372 

The Republic of Panama 375 

The Hawaiian Islands 376 

The Alaska Purchase of 1 867 379 

The Disputed Alaskan Boundary 380 

THE UNITED STATES AND ITS POSSESSIONS (in colors) 

Facing 385 

RAILROADS OF THE UNITED STATES (in colors) . Facing 408 

UNITED STATES IN 1921 (in colors) Facing 417 

INDUSTRIAL MAP OF THE UNITED STATES (in colors) 

Facing 448 

The Submarine Zone 465 

The Berlin-Bagdad Railroad 467 

The Western Front 477 

EUROPE IN 1921 (in colors) Facing 480 



THE PREFACE 

The purpose in writing this text is to present the American people 
in the process of acting out their history. To do this the authors have 
had constantly in mind to set forth this history as a series of pano- 
ramic views. These views will take hold of the pupil's imagination, 
enabling his understanding to work. 

We have, therefore, taken special pains: (i) To use simple and 
easy words. (2) To use the concrete form of the word instead of the 
abstract form. (3) To use short and striking sentences rather than 
long and complicated ones. (4) To use many "word-pictures" in 
setting forth events, where the events are important and lend them- 
selves to such treatment. In such cases we have not hesitated to use 
the word-pi ctvu-es found in Mace's School History. 

A textbook made up largely of word-pictures is necessarily a larger 
book than one of the ordinary kind. Between the two kinds of books 
there are many differences in favor of the former, if the pupils are to 
be considered. In the first case the word-pictures are constantly 
flashing upon his imagination a series of most interesting actions and 
dramatic events. Action in history is always dramatic if it shows 
men in the struggle to attain a common end. 

In the second place the understanding is thus furnished material 
from which it can draw conclusions by its own effort. Many of the 
conclusions can be self-made if the word-picture presents the facts. 
Hence the high value of the "problem " or "project " method of study. 

Teachers now generally recognize the fact that the "problem" or 
"project" method is the best mode of attack. The subjects for com- 
positions and the questions in the Appendix will be found useful in 
this connection. The authors urge teachers to make sure that the 
pupils regard the text as a reference work to be used in the solving 
of their historical problems, not as something to be used mechanically, 
or memorized. 

The teaching of effective, functioning citizenship is the great 
problem before the American schools. Citizenship is a functioning 
force or it is nothing. But in order to function effectively as citizens 
Americans must understand their economic and social environm.ent. 



xiv THE PREFACE 

It is because the authors are deeply interested in the development of 
sound American citizenship that industrial and social problems have 
been given such full treatment. 

Care has been taken to make clear and full the treatment of the 
Etxropean and world background, while the increasing importance 
of our interest in Latin America has received ample emphasis in these 
pages. 

The authors have distributed their material in such a way as to 

meet the requirements of the Committee of Eight, the Committee on 

Social Studies appointed by the N. E. A., and finally by the joint 

Committee of the American Historical Association and of the War 

Service Board. 

The Authors 

December, iq20 



HISTORY 

OF THE 

UNITED STATES 

CHAPTER I 
EUROPE ACCIDENTALLY FINDS AMERICA 

THE PEOPLE OF EUROPE JUST BEFORE COLUMBUS 

1. What Europe looked like.^ It is not easy to imagine 
how Europe looked at the time of Columbus. Much of 
it was covered with great heavy forests. Towns and 
cities dotted the shores of the Mediterranean and Atlan- 
tic, and the land along the rivers. To these towns and 
cities traders carried the rich products which Genoa and 
Venice had received from the Far East. To protect their 
cities and towns from- robber bands high walls had to be 
built around them. On the sea ships were armed to 
beat off pirates, the robbers of the sea. We must now 
see what manner of people lived at that time, for some 
of their children a^-c going to settle in America and make 
the beginnings of our country. 

2. The common man (1400-1500). Most of the people 
of Europe were farmers or peasants, as they were called. 
iViany of thein were serfs. The serfs were not like Ameri- 
can farmers; they were not free, did not own the little 
fields they tilled, and dared not leave them. They had 
to grind their grain at the master's mill and could not hunt 
or fish without his permission. In England the peasants 
were much better off. There they were no longer serfs 
but rented their land from the nobles who owned it. and 
they were free to leave it when they pleased. 




2 EUROPE ACCIDENTALLY FINDS AMERICA 

The iDeasants did not live on their Httle farms. They 
were huddled together in small villages, often at the foot 

of a hill or moun- 
tain on which the 
lord or master 
had his castle 
home. They lived 
in poor, dingy, 
and dirty huts. 
WM^'On]j the better 
class had rugs of 
a rude sort for the 
- ,>4 ' .^ "^ 1^ J^f^P^ floor, made out of 

\^ ^ ^ > W-- > >N dren did not go to 

RUINS OF CHATEAU DE BOUAGUIL, A CASTLE IN FRANCE , 1 r .1 

school, lor they 
had to work in the fields from daylight to dark. 

The peasants did not vote or hold office. The laws 
were made by the big folks for the peasants to obey. In 
social rank the peasants were the lowest of all the people. 
They always took off their hats to the men above them 
and stood aside to let the lords pass. 

3. The trained workers. Next above the peasants 
stood the trained workers, workers in wood, in iron, and 
in cloth, such as woolen and linen weavers and dyers. 
These men lived in the villages and large cities. They 
formed societies or unions called guilds. Sometimes the 
members of the guild "struck" and forced the rulers to 
grant them favors. 

4. The merchant and trading class. Above the trained 
workers stood the merchants and traders. They grew up 
later than the other classes but played an important part 
by 1 500. They often joined the king to keep the nobles in 



THE PEOPLE OF EUROPE JUST BEFORE COLUMBUS 3 

order, or the nobles when the king became tyrannical. 
Order was necessary for trade. The upper classes looked 
down upon the merchants and traders because they owned 
no land. They owned houses, ships, goods, and money. 
In Holland and England they first won the right to take 
part in government. 

5. The nobles and the clergy. The nobles and clergy 
were the highest social classes in that day. They owned 
most of the land. They were called the "privileged" 
classes, because they could do many things that others 
could not do. 

The nobles inherited their titles and land. There were 
different classes of them. Some were great and some 
were small. Some owned vast estates including hundreds 
of villages and even large cities. ^ Such a lord could raise 
a large army. Sometimes he fought his neighbor and 
sometimes even attacked the king. It was next to 
impossible for one not born a noble to become one. 
Nobles married only people of noble birth. 

The clergymen were almost the only educated people. 
They were ministers of religion appointed to positions 
under the pope. The pope was the head of the clergy 
as the king was the head of the nobles. There were 
various classes of clergy: archbishops, bishops, and 
priests. The higher clergy held estates and had peasants 
work their lands. There was something democratic about 
the church. Anyone of ability and the right spirit could 
become a priest. 

6. The king stands highest. Among the social classes 
the king stood highest. In an early day the nobles 
sometimes selected a king from their own number. 
Then they put him down when he did not suit them. 
But later the king became supreme in power, and the 



4 EUROPE ACCIDENTALLY FINDS AMERICA 

people then gradually came' to believe that his authority 
was by divine right. ^ 

In England and in Holland the power of the ruler was 
checked by a parliament. The parliament in other coun- 
tries, if there were one, had very little power. 

This arrangement or system which bound the com- 
mon man, nobles, and kings together was known as 
feudalism. 



J C-'^^^ 



EUROPE'S KNOWLEDGE OF DLSTANT LANDS 

7. Stories of the Northmen. The Northmen, hving in 
the north of Europe, early settled Iceland and Greenland 
and visited the northeast coast of North America. 
They were bold sailors. Their vessels were only large, 
open boats, but they did not fear to sail them upon the 
stormy Atlantic. Driven by oar and sail, and crowded 
with tall, fair-haired warriors eager for adventure, these 

sea-rovers were 
often seen thou- 
sands of miles from 
home. The story 
of Lief Ericson 
and his visit to 
America (1000) did 
not spread over 
Europe until after 
Columbus made 
his discovery. 
^ 8. Tales of the 
■" Crusaders and of 
great travelers. 




NUKillMLN b SHIPS 



In the Middle Ages many Christians made journeys to 
Jerusalem, the city where Christ had lived. Suddenly 



EUROPE'S KNOWLEDGE OF DISTAXT LANDS 




CRUSADERS ON THE MARCH 



news reached Europe that the Turks, cruel followers of 

Mohammed, had taken the Holy Land.-* Western Europe 

sprang to arms. For 
two hundred years 
(1095-1291) thousands 
of bold warriors 
marched at different 
times to Asia to fight 
the Turk. These 
wars were called the 
Crusades. The return- 
ing warriors were heroes 
in the sight of their 

neighbors to whom they told the most fascinating and 

wonderful tales of Eastern lands. 

Marco Polo, a traveler from Venice, spent twenty years 

in lands of the Far East. He wrote a book about what 

he saw. Columbus is supposed to have read it. These 

stories made the people hungrier than ever for the fine 

goods, sparkling jewels, and rich spices of these far-away 

lands. People liked 

fine things then just 

as much as now. 
9. Smashing the 

old trade routes turns 

attention to the West. 

News came again that 

the Turks had taken 

Constantinople (1453). 

They had now broken 

up the old trade routes 

of Venice and Genoa 

(see map). These 




NMRCO POLO IN PRISON DICTATING AN 
ACCOUNT OF HIS TR-WELS 



6 EUROPE ACCIDENTALLY FINDS AMERICA 

cities finally fell into decay. Their richest trade had 
been cut off, and their sailors turned to the Atlantic where 
Prince Henry of Portugal was striving to find a new 
water route to India. 

10. Portugal leads the way to India. The Portuguese 
were already in the lead in the race to India. They were 
seeking the land of golden dreams. But the sea was full 
of horrors to the simple-minded sailors. It was not until 




INDIAN '--.OCEAN 



Northern RouU Controlled by Genoa. Middle Route 

Southern Route Controlled by Venice ^ — • — i— i— i — 
OLD TRADE ROUTES TO INDIA FOLLOWED BY EUROPEAN MERCHANTS 

Dias, a great sea-captain, passed the Cape of Storms, 
now known as the Cape of Good Hope, and looked out 
upon the Indian Ocean that Portugal could see the way 
to India. She did not win the race to India until Da Gama 
reached that country (1498). 

COLUMBUS SEEKS INDIA AND FINDS AMERICA 

II. Columbus asks for aid. Columbus was born in 
the bustling old town of Genoa ( §9) . He went to sea early, 
and when he grew to be a man he was drawn to Portugal 
by the news of stirring events. He believed that the 



COLUMBUS FINDS AMERICA 



world is round and he worked out the idea that he could 
reach India by sailing westward. From maps and globes 
he judged the world 
much smaller than it 
really is, and that India 
is about where North 
America is. What a 
happy mistake !^ 

Portugal refused to 
help Columbus, and he 
left for Spain. Here 
for eight years he tried 
to secure assistance 
(14S4-92). Finally he 
gave up and started 
for France. One day 
he stopped at a con- 
vent and told his story 
to the keeper, or prior. The prior begged Columbus to 
wait while he hastened to Queen Isabella to ask for help. 
He won a great victory for Columbus and America, for 
the Queen pledged her jewels, if needed, to fit out vessels 
for the voyage. 

12. His first voyage across the Atlantic. Columbus 
was happy, but to his sailors this journey was a voyage 
of death. On August 3, 1492, with the prior's blessing, 
Columbus set sail with three small ships. He rested at the 
Canary Islands and then sailed westward for over a month. 
E ach day the sailors grew more downhearted . They feared 
the trade winds would never carry them back, and worst of 
all, that faithful friend, the compass, began to vary.^ 

Encouraged by signs of land, Columbus held on his way, 
and on October 12, the shores of the New World broke 




CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS 



EUROPE ACCIDENTALLY FINDS AMERICA 



on his sight. He took possession of San Salvador, one 
of the Bahama Islands, in grand style. He made explora- 
tions, reaching the coast of Cuba and Haiti. But he was 
badly disappointed in finding no rich cities. He gathered 
specimens, even natives, to show his monarchs. He 
named the natives Indians, because he was certain he had 
discovered parts of India. He reached home, told his 
story to the King and Queen, and showed his specimens 
to their admiring eyes. 

13. Disappointment of Columbus. Now the people 
wanted Columbus to hurry. Over fifteen hundred men 
crowded his seventeen ships for another voyage. On the 
first voyage he had been forced to take men from the 
Spanish jails, but now Spanish grandees eager for the 
voyage pledged their wealth that they might go. 




THE LANDING OF COLUMBUS 



This voyage so happily begun (1493) brought only the 
discovery of Jamaica and Porto Rico. A third brought 
him back in chains,^ but he had seen South America. 



OTHER NATIONS TRY THEIR FORTUNES Q 

Columbus made his fourth and last voyage in 1502 and 
died four years afterward. Neither he nor anyone else 





A T L A N r I C e,sHA,N 

. Azores , . , /g, 

■ .'• Lisbon Kl ,. a\o'' 

rmubaIs. ^,6^" jN<'* MadeibaI.^ .^yy 

"i c"'* ^"^ Arrived. Aug. 12th ,y:y 

t?'' ^ V Departed. Sept.r'thy>y 

, Bahama ^^^^^^ ^v* ,l-:-, _ ^^;„,„6„s ^^ / "^^ ' ' 

"T^v-S^---" • /-^•^""i-*^"'^ 

-15^-^" d^'.i"^''^?'-*- .ib"*-^' v^'' / I AFRICA 

,./^ ^^;""'\ •■ .-• — «-I 

L7 ^M/c^ \^. ---^ , IS"^^-' 



_ ''San Salva 



Cape \'erde- 
Is. < 




THE FOUR VOYAGES OF COLUMBUS 



then knew that he had seen a new world. The way to 
India and her treasures still filled the minds of men. 



OTHER NATIONS TRY THEIR FORTUNES 

14. England takes the lead (1497). The news of 
Columbus' great deed stirred all Europe. England sent 
John Cabot, a man from Venice, to find a western route 
to India. He reached North America in the neighborhood 
of Nova Scotia or Labrador. The next year, with his 
son Sebastian, Cabot is supposed to have sailed farther 
south. Thus it was that England laid claim to all 
North America. 

15. The Portuguese turn west. The king of Spain 
hurried a messenger to tell the pope what Columbus had 
done. The pope drew a line from pole to pole, 370 leagues 
west of the CaD'^^ Verde Isles. This ran through eastern 



lO 



EUROPE ACCIDENTALLY FINDS AMERICA 



South America. He declared all the new lands discovered 
east of this line should belong to Portugal and all west of 
it to Spain. This division seemed to shut England and 
France out in the cold! 

Portugal was still busy with India (§io), but Americus 
Vespucius, an Italian sailing first in the employ of Spain 
and then of Portugal, touched South America. He wrote 
several letters about his discoveries, calling the land a 
"new world." The geographers of that day accordingly 
applied his name to South America and later to the whole 
New World.8 

SPAIN LEADS IX EXPLORATION 

i6. Spanish discoveries. In the same year (15 13) 
Ponce de Leon explored Florida and Balboa crossed the 
Isthmus of Panama and discovered the Pacific Ocean. 
The king of Spain sent Magellan with five small vessels 
to explore the coasts of South America (15 19). He sailed 
through the strait that bears his name and up the western 
coast. Then he struck westward and reached the 



ASIA M J a- r~^:imyM^ ^' 

^^S !l5<i.AJM E rVp A:, 

f^-. PACT F,2-'6 \ 

'ffPHILr'pPINE ISLANDS _,.,^'' 
§, , — ^ 'LADRO^EtslANDS 

NNEl 





O C\E A N 



^.Strait vf Ma<jMaii 
J' 



MAGELLAN AND DRAKE S VOYAGES AROUND THE WORLD 

Ladrones with his sailors half starved. He was killed 
in the Philippines, but one of his ships made her way by 



SPAIN LEADS IN EXPLORATION 



II 



the Cape of Good Hope to Spain. Magellan had proved that 
India could be reached by sailing westward. Just I'j'j 




.^.^^f!^-^"--^- 



THE AZTEC CITY OF MEXICO 



years after his ships touched their shores Manila sur- 
rendered to Dewey and the Philippines were ours (§576). 

17. Cortez conquers Mexico. While Magellan was 
sailing around the globe, Cortez was conquering one of 
the richest cities in the world (15 19-21). What a sight 
met his eyes! A city built over a lake, where canals took 
the place of streets, and canoes carried people from place 
to place. Three great roads built of solid stonework ran 
to the center. Here stood a wonderful temple whose 
top could be reached by 114 great fetone steps running 
around the outside. The people in Mexico were called 
Aztecs. Over sixty thousand of them, dressed in cotton 
clothes, lived in this city. Cortez set up Spanish rule, 
and Mexico turned millions upon millions of money into 
the lap of Spain. Pizarro found Peru even richer than 
Mexico (1532).^ But in the quarrel over these riches 
he was killed. 

18. Spain disappointed. De Soto, comrade of Pizarro 
in Peru, but later governor of Cuba, set out for Florida 



12 



EUROPE ACCIDENTALLY FINDS AMERICA 




DE SOTO DISCOVERS THE MIGHTY MISSISSIPPI 



with a large force (1539). He sought rich cities and was 
cruel to the Indians for not finding them for him. He 

saw the Mississippi 
(1541) but dis- 
appointed, he grew 
sick, died, and was 
buried beneath its 
muddy waters, i" 

Before the fate of 
De Soto was known, 
Coronado marched 
gaily forth from 
Mexico to find the 
wonderful ' ' Cities of 
Cibola." He, too, 
was disappointed. He saw only a few Indian pueblos and 
hundreds of "crook-backed cows."^^ He was the first 
white man to behold the beauty and grandeur of the 
Grand Canyon of the Colorado. But he was searching 
for gold. The gold, we know, was there, but Coronado 
did not find it. Not even the exploration of California 
^1542) could satisfy Spain's call for gold. 

19. Ill effects on Spain of the gold of South America. 
With the exception! of the settlement of St. Augustine 
in Florida (1565) and of Santa Fe in New Mexico (1582), 
Spain gave most of her early efforts to gathering wealth 
from Mexico and South America. The gold and silver 
of these regions made Spain for nearly one hundred years 
the greatest power in Europe but it hurt her in the end. 
She built the Armada and tried to conquer England. Her 
failure was a terrible blow to her power. Then, too, the 
Spanish people could not see why they should work with 
the riches of the New World flowing in upon them. 



FRANCE A RIVAL OF vSPATN 13 

They allowed their industries to perish and bought goods 
made in the countries of Northern Europe. Spain became 
poorer and weaker. 

20. The Spanish m.ethods of conquest. When the 
Spaniards conquered a country like Mexico, they were 
cruel to those who opposed them. But they did not try to 
kill all the natives. Instead they converted them, reduced 
them to slavery, and some they married. Thus the 
natives in many cases mixed with the Spaniards. This is 
why so many of the people of Spanish-America are of 
Indian blood or of mixed Spanish and Indian blood. 
How different it was in the case of the United States ! 
There the native Indians were pushed ahead of the 
settlers and at last were gathered together and made 
to live in certain districts reserved for them. There was 
no intermarriage of Indian and white. The result is 
that most of our population today is of European origin. 

FRANCE A RIVAL OF SPAIN 

21. Early French efforts. The king of France did not 
like to be shut out of the New World by the pope (§15).^- 
Verrazano, sailing under the French flag, stopped, it is 
said, to admire New York Bay (1524). Ten years later, 
Cartier sailed up the St. Lawrence to an Indian town 
which he named Mont Real (Montreal). He thought he 
was on his way to China. 

22. French Huguenots seek a home. The flame of 
the Protestant Revolution swept over Europe. It 
spread to nearly all countries. Before 1500 nearly all 
European nations were Roman Catholic. After the 
Reformation they were divided into quarreling sects. 
France was torn by religious quarrels, and although her 
king was a Catholic, he gave permission to the Huguenots, 



14 



EUROPE ACCIDENTALLY FINDS AMERICA 



or French Protestants, to plant a colony in South 
Carolina (1562). This failed, and they tried once more 
at Port Royal on the Saint John's in Florida. But the 
Spanish governor at St. Augustine (§19) destroyed this 
last attempt of the French to plant a colony so far south. '^ 

ENGLAND SPAIN'S RIVAL, TOO 

23. Commercial rivalry at first. For nearly a century 
England had done little to follow up Cabot's voyages 
(§14). She, too, had had her share of religious troubles. 
In Elizabeth's reign England and Spain were drifting 
toward war.^'* Among England's most daring sailors 
was Drake. The Spaniards called him the "Dragon." 
He pounced upon them everywhere. Finally he sailed into 
the Pacific to rob their treasure ships. He seized millions 
upon millions of gold, spent the winter in California 

(New Albion), sailed west and 
reached home (1580), having 
circled the globe. England 
was ablaze with excitement 
over Drake's return with the 
Spanish gold. The queen gave 
him the grand title of "Sir." 
24. Raleigh points out a 
wiser way. Sir Humphrey 
Gilbert was given a charter 
for trade and settlement in 
America. He was lost on a 
homeward voyage. His rights 
fell to Sir Walter Raleigh, one 
of the bravest and wisest of 
the queen's friends. He told the queen a better way 
to beat the Spaniard was to plant colonies. She wai. 




^^v*\' 



\ 



SIR FR\NCIS DR\KE 



4. 



ENGLAND SPAIN'S RIVAL 



IS 



pleased with reports from America and named a part 
of it Virginia. Raleigh sent out two colonies. They 
located on the coast of North rrs>- - . !^ 

Carolina. The first did not 
thrive and the other became 
the "lost colony." No trace 
of it was ever found. 

25. Results of Raleigh's 
efforts. Raleigh's money was 
now about gone. But he did 
not lose heart. He declared '..^-iv 
that "he would live to see the 
day when Virginia would be a 
nation." The settlers had 
taken back to England a plant 
called tobacco, which was 
soon to be the foundation of 
Virginia's prosperity. With 
them also went corn and potatoes, tvv'o products which 
have proved of greater value to mankind than all the 
gold and silver Spain has dug from the mines of the 
New World. 

26. The defeat of the great Spanish Armada (1588). 
Raleigh's second colony was neglected because England 
had kept every man at home to fight against the fleet 
of ships and army of soldiers sent by Spain to attack her. 
The Spaniards were the bravest of soldiers, and in all 
Europe they were the greatest shipbuilders. With 137 
ships and 27,000 men the Armada set sail to conquer 
England. It sailed proudly up the English Channel. 
The English fleet of smaller and more nimble vessels 
swarmed out and boldly attacked it. The great 
Spanish ships, with hundreds of soldiers on board, made 




SIR WALTER RALEIGH 



i6 



EUROPE ACCIDENTALLY FINDS AMERICA 



easy marks for English gunners. A terrific storm came 
to help the EngHsh. The loss of life was awful. Less 




THE SPANISH ARMADA 



than half of the "Invincible Armada" ever reached Spain 
again. From now on we may mark the decline of Spain. 
English sailors grew bolder and the English government 
more courageous in colony planting. 

SUGGESTED READINGS 

References for teachers: Fiske, Discovery of America, II; Bassett, 
Short History of the United States, chap, ii; Becker, Beginnings of the 
American People, 1-36; Hart, American History Told by Contem- 
poraries, I, chaps, i-iv; Thwaites, Colonies, 20-24; Parkman, Pioneers 
of France: 

References for pupils: Hale, Stories of Discovery, 1-106; Mace- 
Tanner, Old Europe and Young America, 221-315; Mace, Stories of 
Heroism, 1-54; McMurry, Pioneers on Land and Sea, 1-34, 161-225; 
Brooks, True Story of Columbus, 1-103, 11 2-1 22; Hart, Source Book, 
1-23, 26-82; Hart, Source Reader, I, 4-16. 

Fiction: Henty, Under Drake's Flag; Longfellow, Sir Humphrey 
Gilbert. 

PROBLEMS AND PROJECTS 

I. Write what you see in a play battle. 2. Go with Drake around 
the world and write letters telling what took place. 3. Describe the 
scene when Raleigh first attracted the attention of Queen Elizabeth. 



CHAPTER II 

THE LAND AND THE PEOPLE OF 
EARLY AMERICA 

NATURAL ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES 
IN SETTLING NORTH AMERICA 

27. The eastern part of North America. The Atlantic 
coast with its many harbors offered friendly protection 
to settlers. The country from the coast to the moun- 
tains gave the settlers rich soil for crops, plenty of wood 
and lumber for their homes, choice game for food, and skins 
for clothes. This region would have been a paradise for 
the poor man of Europe (§2) had it not been for the 
fevers along the coast and for the Indians in the forests. 

The Appalachian Highland once formed a great barrier 
separating the East from the Mississippi Valle}^ The 
Hudson and the Mohawk valleys formed the easiest way 
into this region in early days. Another route was by the 
Potomac and the headwaters of the Ohio. Still another, 
though less known, was the James River and the Great 
Kanawha. A more famous route ran from the head- 
waters of the Yadkin through Cumberland Gap. Any 
good map will show the great number of rivers taking 
their rise in these highlands and dropping rapidly to the 
sea. These rivers later furnished the settlers with water 
power for driving mills. 

28. The heart of North America. We may reach the 
heart of North America by either the Mississippi or the St. 
Lawrence. The French were long-headed enough to see 
that the nation holding this region would control the con- 
tinent. This region has become the granary of the world. 

17 



r8 THE LAND AND THE PEOPLE 

Northwest of the Ohio River, west and southwest of the 
Mississippi as far as Mexico, are vast treeless regions 
called prairies. Here roved countless herds of buffaloes. 
From the headwaters of the Mississippi and the Ohio 
to the headwaters of the Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence 
is only a short distance. The Indians made trails from 
one to the other, carrying their canoes and fur packs. 

29. The Rocky Mountains and western highlands. 
Many miles west of the Mississippi rises the gigantic sys- 
tem of highlands called the Rocky Mountains. This 
region is higher than the Appalachian (§27) and broader, 
reaching three hundred miles in places. There are very 
few passes where man may break a road to the westward. 

Once across the Rockies we come to a region extending 
from Canada to Mexico. This highland area has little 
rainfall. Here, as well as in the Rocky Mountains, the 
Indian found his match in the great grizzly bear and in 
the so-called Rocky Mountain sheep. This region is still 
their home. Here, too, the white man finds pasturage 
for thousands of sheep and cattle. In these two regions 
lay hidden from the native vast stores of gold and silver 
and of copper and lead. 

30. The Pacific Coast region. A range of mountains 
still blocks man's way to the Pacific. Once across, he 
finds himself in a country not so extensive as were the 
lands farther east but far more charming as to climate. 

31. The Oregon and Santa Fe trails. The rivers, we 
have seen, were the most important roadways before the 
white man came. The Indian, however, frequently aided 
by the buffalo, had trails leading from one Indian town 
to another. Crossing half the continent to the Pacific 
were two trails of great historic interest, the Oregon and 
the Santa Fe trails. From the place where St. Louis 



HOW THE INDIAN HELPED 



19 



now stands the two routes were the same to the western 
part of Missouri. Here they separated : the Oregon going 




EARLY TRAILS LEADING TO THE PACIFIC COAST 

in a northwest direction to the Columbia River and the 
Santa Fe in a southwest direction to Santa Fe. Pitching 
almost directly south to the Mexican border, it then 
turns directly west toward San Diego on the Pacific. 

HOW THE INDIAN HELPED AND HINDERED THE SETTLERS 

32. Different ways of doing things. The Indian was 
far behind white men in many ways: he wore the skins 
of buffalo, bear, deer, and beaver; these were also used 
in building and furnishing his wigwam or tent. He 
built his fire in the wigwam or in the open. He found it 
hard to keep warm in winter and cool in summer. He 



20 



THE LAND AND THE PEOPLE 



armed himself with bow and arrow, spear and tomahawk. 
The tomahawk was only a rude stone ax. It seems clear 

to us that the 
Indian needed 
many things 
to meet the 
white man as 
an equal. 

33. What 
they both 
wanted. The 
Indian really 
had two 
things wanted 
by the white 
man: land and 
furs. The 
two races did 
not under- 
stand each 
other's point 
of view about 
land. The 

Indian looked upon it only as a hunting ground. When 
game grew scarce in one place, he moved to another. 
The forests were useful to him as a hiding place for his 
game. But the white man settled down. He made 
farms, built villages and cities, and to do this he had to 
cut down the forests. When the forests were gone, both 
the game and the Indians had to leave. 

The Indian had no ideas of private property. Large 
sections of the country were regarded as the hunting 
grounds of certain tribes, but the individual Indian owned 




THE INDIAN TOWN OF POMEIOOC, VIRGINTA 



HOW THE INDIAN HELPED 21 

no land. The white settler claimed the land as his own 
property and insisted that the Indian stay off. This 
difference led to quarrels and war. 

The fur trade was their one great tie. But the Indian 
had no idea of the value of his furs. Hence the white 
man's greed and the Indian's suspicion led to quarrels. 
The Dutch in New York won the Indians' confidence, 
but most of the English settlers did not. The Frenchmen 
were their great friends. They hunted, trapped, and 
lived together. They shared each other's campfires as 
boon companions. The Indians and French married and 
raised half-breed children. The Spaniards mixed with 
the Indians but were cruel to them and generally treated 
them as slaves (§20). 

34. Imperfect organization makes Indian opposition 
weak. The great Indian families and their tribes may 
be seen on the map (opp. p. 17). The families were some- 
times hostile, and the tribes of a family were often at war. 
With the exception of the half-civilized Incas in Peru 
and the Aztecs in Mexico, the most famous "nation" 
was the Iroquois ^^ in central New York. Its members 
had formed an imperfect confederacy and could put in 
battle several hundred of the fiercest warriors. Had the 
Indians been united, it would have gone much harder with 
the early settlers in this country. 

35. The warrior and the worker. The man was a 
warrior and a hunter. He painted his body to make him- 
self look terrible to his enemy. He was a good friend but 
a cruel foe. He loved to fight from ambush and to 
frighten his enemy by loud shouting to give the idea 
of great numbers. He took fiendish pleasure in torturing 
prisoners. If the battle did not go in his favor, he was 
easily discouraged and ran away. 



22 



THE LAND AND THE PEOPLE 



The woman was a worker and a drudge. While the 
hunter was bringing in the supply of meat or away 

on some warlike expe- 
dition, the woman was 
busy cooking, working 
around the wigwam 
and keeping the patch 
of corn, beans, and 
squash free from weeds. 
She gathered the fire- 
wood and when the 
tribe moved, carried the 
tent poles to the new 
grounds. Yet the 
squaw as a mother 
often had great influ- 
ence over her husband. 
Tecumseh was prob- 
ably the greatest Indian 
about whom we know. He was a fine-looking man. He 
had statesmanlike ideas, was an orator of the first rank, 
and a warrior that knew no fear. He denounced the 
massacre of prisoners. 

SUGGESTED READINGS 

References for teachers: Bassett, Short History of the United States, 
chap, i; Thwaites, Colonies, 1-19; Fisher, Colonial Era, chaps, i-ii. 

References for pupils: Hart, Source Book, 23-26; Hart, Source 
Reader, I, 116-117, 1 21-125. 

Fiction: Monroe, Flamingo Feather; Eastman, Indian Boyhood; 
Longfellow, Hiawatha. 

PROBLEMS AND PROJECTS 

I . Resolved that Indian boys had a better time than boys in the 
colonies. 2. Climb to the top of the stone temple in Mexico and 
write about the Aztecs you see. 3. Imagine yourself sitting at the 
"council fire" of the Five Nations and write what you hear. 




TECUMSEH, CHIEF OF THE SHAWNEES 



CHAPTER III 
THE vSOUTHERN COLONIES 

MAKING EXPERIMENTS 

36. England stirs interest in Virginia. Raleigh had 
failed (§24). Two companies were given charters allow- 
ing them to make settlements in Virginia: the Plymouth 
in north Virginia, 



and the London 
in south Virginia. 
The king promised 
the settlers that 
they should be 
EngHshmen, "as 
if they had been 
abiding and born 
within the realm 
of England." But 
he took care to 
give them little 
power to govern 
themselves. 

English peojjle 
hesitated to settle 
in America where 
so many things 
were new and strange. Besides, was not Spain jealously 
watching their every movement for a settlement?^" But 
England was in need of an outlet for her laboring people 
(§2), who were finding it difficult to get work at home. 
Therefore sermons were preached, pamphlets were 




LONDON AND PL'i'MOUTH COMPANIES 



23 



24 THE SOUTHERN COLONIES 

printed, and poems were written, sounding the praises 
of Virginia. 

37. Jamestown settled (1607). The wish to get rich 
quickly and return to England brought 105 settlers to 
Jamestown in the spring of 1607. They did not come to 
work but to find gold. Excitement ran high. Their 
imaginations "worked overtime": a few miles inland 
might be the Pacific Ocean, which Drake had crossed, 
and there, too, might be another Peru. Among the 
mountains were streams whose waters might flow over 
golden sands, and mines whose riches no man could count. 
Men could not work in the midst of such prospects. 

38. John Smith comes to the front. John Smith," the 
strongest man in the colony, now took charge. He com- 
pelled idlers to work, traded with the Indians for food, and 
had the cabins repaired. He wrote the London Company 
to send no more such men, but to send "carpenters, hus- 
bandmen, gardeners, fishermen, blacksmiths, masons, and 
diggers of trees' roots. ' ' The people grew more contented, 
and'John Smith held the colony together until more settlers 




THE SITE OF JAMESTOWN 



came. A new charter (1609) gave new boundaries to south 
Virginia (see map) and greater power to the company. 



T R V E R E 

lation of fuch occur- 

rences and accidentsof noateas 

hath hapned in Virginia fmce the firfl 
planting of that Collony, which is now 
refident in the South part thereor,filI 
the laHrcturne from 
thence. 
ffrir/efi bj Captaine Svn'nh cneofthefaidCclUny, to a 
T^orJhipfullWitnA ofhis in England. 




L O ?^D 7^ 
Pr'wtcdhr /ohn TappCy and aretobcefolde' at the Grey: 
hound inPaiilesQhurch yard byPV.H'. 
16 0% 



TITLE PACn: OF JOHN SMITH S HISTORY OF VIRGINIA 



26 



THE SOUTHERN COLONIES 



39. Out of death comes life. John Smith had to go 
to England; idleness and disorder broke out, and the 




TERRITORY CLAIMED BY VIRGINIA UNDER THE CHARTER OF 1609 

"starving time" resulted. Over four hundred settlers 
went to their graves, and only sixty were left to tell the 
tale (16 10). Fortunately Lord Delaware arrived with 
supplies just as they were leaving for England. 

In the spring of 1611 three hundred more settlers 
arrived, and with them came the man to control them, 
Sir Thomas Dale. He was a fearless soldier who ruled 
by military law. He abolished the ' ' common storehouse " 
and gave each man a few acres to till. The effect was 
magical. Even idlers went to work. 

GETTING A FOOTHOLD 

40. Tobacco makes Virginia prosperous. The settlers 
did not prosper at first. They began making things for 



GETTING A FOOTHOLD 



27 



the English market which could be produced cheaper in 
the old home. Happily John Rolfe raised a crop of 
tobacco and sold it for a good price (16 12). The settlers 
took up tobacco-raising with enthusiasm. Governor Dale 
had to declare that no man should plant tobacco until he 
had first put two acres in grain. In 16 19 Virginia sent 
20,000 pounds of tobacco to England, and doubled the 
amount the next year. On both banks of the James River 
tobacco plantations sprang up, and Jamestown became 
a queer-looking village. It was a series of tobacco farms 
with the James River as its main street. 

41. An important date in American history (16 19). 
The year 16 19 not only marks (i) the first great crop of 
tobacco, but (2) the beginning of representative govern- 
ment in America, (3) the sending of a large number of 
maidens to be wives of the settlers, thus making Virginia 
homes more cheerful and comfortable, and (4) the landing 
of a Dutch trading vessel with twenty slaves. Thus 
slavery and 
representa- 
tive govern- 
m e n t h a d r 



their begin- ^ 
ning in the '-- 
same year. 
The London 
Company 
sent over 
Governor 
Yeardley to 
call a repre- 
sentative assembly 




THE LANDING OF THE YOUNG WOMEN ON VIRGINIA'S SHORES 



Two men were elected from each 
plantation or neighborhood. They formed what the 



28 THE SOUTHERN COLONIES 

Virginians loved to call a House of Burgesses. They 
met in the little church. The governor and his council, 
keeping their hats on, took the front seats. The 
burgesses took seats behind them. The meeting was 
opened with prayer by the clergyman. Each man took 
an oath to be loyal to the king. A speaker, a clerk, and 
a sergeant were elected and took seats facing the assembly. 
This house served as a training school for Virginians, and 
when the Revolution broke out, no other colony in America 
furnished so many great men.^^ 

42. Contentment grows. Settlers now came to stay 
because work was plenty. Laborers were in demand for 
tobacco-raising and came to Virginia in large numbers. 
For a long time they largely outnumbered the slaves. 
There were only sixteen hundred people in the colony in 
1624, although more tha-n seven thousand had been sent 
over from England. Many of them had died, many had 
returned home, but nearly four hundred had been killed 
by the Indians in the massacre (1622). Virginia had a 
hard time getting started. 

43. The Company loses its charter. The London 
Company had fallen into progressive hands. King James 
opposed this and took advantage of the Indian massacre 
to take away its charter. It was a battle between the 
"divine right" of the king to do what he pleased and the 
Company to do what was best for Virginia. The king 
won. But the Company had made Virginia a barrier 
against the Spaniard and in so doing had laid the founda- 
tion for representative government. 

VIRGINIA THE KING'S COLONY 

44. Trouble arises in England. A new party called the 
Puritan party was arising in England. Parhament was 



VIRGINIA THE KING'S COLONY 



29 



becoming Puritan (§61) and quarreled, with the king over 
taxes and religion. Down to 1 641 more than one thou- 
sand Puritans migrated to Virginia to escape the king's 
persecution. In 1642 one of the king's men, Berkeley, 
became governor of Virginia. Berkeley and the bur- 
gesses banished the Puritans. Most of them went to 
Maryland (§52). 

The Puritans finally won out in England and beheaded 
Charles I. The burgesses immediately invited his son, 
Charles II, to Virginia, but he did not come. The leader 
of the Puritans, Cromwell, established a kindly rule in 
Virginia. He gave the colony free government, free 
trade, and free religion. From England came groups of 
Cavaliers, friends of the king, seeking homes in America. 
The Virginians gave them a hearty welcome, for many 
of them were well-to-do, refined, and well educated. 
They gave a higher tone to Virginian society. 

45. Virginia again in the king's hands. While the 
Puritans and Cavaliers were having trouble, Virginia had 
been growing by leaps and bounds. 
By 1640 its people numbered about 
fifteen thousand and by 1660 forty 
thousand. Only three hundred were 
negro slaves. Up Chesapeake Bay 
and its rivers pushed the planters 
with their fields of tobacco and grain. 

When England, tired of Puritan 
rule, called Charles II to be king 
(1660), the Cavaliers in England 
and Virginia were wild with joy. 
Berkeley came to the governor's 
chair again and showed that he had learned nothing 
from his experience. He kept the House of Burgesses 




A CAVALIER 



30 



THE SOUTHERN COLONIES 



for seventeen years without election, took the right to 
vote from all except landholders, and persecuted Baptists, 

Quakers, and all 
others who refused 
to attend the 
English church. ^^ 

46. Bacon's Re- 
bellion (1676). 
Berkeley's time of 
punishment was at 
hand. The Indians 
suddenly fell upon 
the Virginians and 
killed some of 
them. Berkeley 
J] would do nothing 
for fear of losing 
the Indian fur 
trade in which he 
shared. Nathaniel 
Bacon quickly 
raised a band of 
riflemen and marched against the' Indians. Berkeley 
declared him a traitor for fighting without his permission. 
Bacon returned, drove Berkeley from Jamestown, and 
burned the town. At the height of his success Bacon died, 
and Berkeley took pleasure in hanging "rebel" leaders. 
King Charles declared that ' ' the old fool has put to death 
more people in that naked country than I have for the 
death of my father." One of the burgesses said: "If we 
had let him alone, he would have hanged half the country. " 
The king called Berkeley back to England, and sent out a 
new governor. Virginia never forgot Bacon's rebellion. 




BACON AND HIS FOLLOWERS 



AlARYLAND 



31 



MARYLAND A NEW KIND OF COLONY 

47. A home for Catholics and Protestants (1634). For 

over one hundred years in England Roman Catholics and 
Protestants had persecuted each other. George Calvert, 
Lord Baltimore, was a Roman Catholic. He was greatly 
beloved by the English king. Baltimore decided to find 
a home for his people in America. King Charles I gave 
him Maryland, named in honor of Queen Henrietta Maria. 
Before the colony was ready, Baltimore died. Follow- 
ing an old European custom, his oldest son, Cecil, fell heir 
to his titles and his property (§5). He immediately sent 
out a colony of over two hundred settlers. They settled' 
at St. Mary's on the north bank of the Potomac, near 
its mouth. The majority 
of them were Protestants. 
48. A happy colony. The 
Indians were friendly and 
opened their wigwams to 
the settlers. They taught 
the men how to hunt the 
deer and the turkey, and \\V|j^^*''^v'>''V'./^ 
the women how to bake 
bread before an open fire. 
Fortune smiled on St. 
Mary's. She had no 
starving time (§39), and 
no Indian massacre (§42). 
She had a representative 
assembly. Her people 
opened up trade with their neighbors and with far-away 
New England. They stocked their farms with cows, 
hogs, and sheep from England. They raised good crops, 
and were very happy in their homes in the New World. 




GEORGE CALVERT 



32 



THE SOUTHERN COLONIES 



49. Maryland an unusual colony. Religious toleration, 
a new thing in the world, was soon established in Maryland 

by Lord Baltimore, who was 
owner or proprietor of the 
colony. He not only owned 
the land, but appointed the 
governors, vetoed the laws 
made in the colony, and 
named the judges. Only the 
king could do these things 
in England. Baltimore was 
almost a king in Maryland. 
50. How tobacco -raising 
spoiled a part of Baltimore's 
plan. Baltimore had the 
right to grant titles of nobil- 
ity. He planned to have a 
number of great estates in 
Maryland. On these were 
to live men with grand titles in splendid manor houses, 
after the style of old Europe (§5). On these estates, too, 
were to live the laborers in their cabins. They were to 
work for the lord of the manor. But when the people came 
to Maryland, they found it much easier and far better to 
raise their own tobacco and be their own masters. The 
great estates then had to be broken up into smaller 
tobacco plantations. 

51. A representative assembly and toleration. The 
very next year after the birth of the colony a representa- 
tive assembly was estabhshed (1635). This assembly, 
called the House of Burgesses, worked well. One of its 
most important laws was the Act of Toleration (1649). 
This act declared that ' ' no person or persons whatsoever 




CECIL CALVERT 



THE TWO CAROLINAS 33 

within this province, professing to believe in Jesus Christ, 
shall from henceforth be any ways troubled." 

52. Trouble from Virginia. William Claiborne, living 
in Virginia, claimed Kent Island in the Chesapeake. 
He refused to obey Maryland's authority, and she drove 
him out. The Puritans, driven from Virginia, had crossed 
to Maryland (§44).-" When Cromwell, the great Puritan 
general, came to be head of the government in England, 
Claiborne and the Puritans joined forces and captured 
St. Mary's. But Cromwell knew how to be just as well 
as stern. He restored Baltimore's authority on his 
promising toleration forever. 

53. Maryland prosperous. The kindly climate, the 
rich soil, freedom from Indian troubles, and religious 
toleration attracted settlers. The great majority of 
them were Protestants and welcomed the revolution 
which put William and Mary on the throne of England 
(1688).-^ In 1720 was founded, well up on Chesapeake 
Bay, the chief city of the colony, Baltimore. By the time 
of the Revolution it was a most prosperous city. 

THE TWO CAROLINAS THE HOME OF MANY KINDS 
OF PEOPLE 

54. North and South Carolina. We have already seen 
settlers migrating from Virginia to Maryland (§44). 
Shortly afterwards" some went to North Carolina. The 
House of Burgesses gave other settlers land grants on 
Albemarle Sound (1653). Some New Englanders tried to 
occupy the region around the mouth of Cape Fear River 
but had to give it up. 

These settlements were made, not by England, but by 
the colonists. But the king gave the Carolinas to 
eight of his favorites. These nobles had a constitution" 
3 



34 



THE SOUTHERN COLONIES 




THE CAROLINA AND GEORGIA COLONIES 



drawn up for Carolina which planned to have classes of 
people from the laborer up to lords. The people settling 

in the Carolinas 
paid no attention 
to it and went 
on making settle- 
ments in their own 
way. Thus there 
failed another 
effort to establish 
feudalism in the 
southern colonies 
(§50). 

55. Settlement 
of Charleston 
(1670). The pro- 
prietors hurried a colony over to settle "Charles Town" 
at the union of the Cooper and Ashley rivers. Later the 
colony, finding a better location, moved Charleston to its 
present place. The colonists built a fort and got ready 
for the Spaniards (§36). They did not have to wait 
long, but the Spaniards, when they saw the Carolinians 
were ready for them, returned without striking a single 
blow. Hence the Carolinas were a barrier in holding back 
the Spaniard (§24). 

56. The coming of many kinds of people. At first the 
Carolinas promised to be like Virginia and Maryland, 
settled by English churchmen only. But presently came 
the Scotch-Irish Presbyterians, driven to America by laws 
which made it hard to earn a living in Ireland. The 
Quakers settled in large numbers, especially in North 
Carolina. A few Swiss and Germans settled along the 
sea, and latest of all came the Scotch Highlanders, 



THE TWO CAROLINAS 



35 



who were banished for being true to the Young Pretender, 
the grandson of James II (§78).^^ But the most interest- 
ing of all the people migrating to the Carolinas were the 
French Huguenots (§2 2). 2* 

57. Occupations and government. The Carolinas were 
alike in that the early settlers in both colonies raised 
•tobacco. This brought them ready money from England. 
North Carolina was made up mostly of small, independent 
farmers. Many raised wheat and corn and made pitch, 
tar, and turpentine from the great forests of pine. They 
did not have many slaves. 

At first South Carolina centered around Charleston. 
Her planters lived in the city in the winter and upon their 
plantations in the summer. They owned many slaves. 
Rice was introduced and was the leading product of the 
colony for a long time. Indigo, too, found a place on 
some of the Carolina plantations. Both articles together 
with tobacco brought English trade to Charleston. 













A CAROLINA COLONIAL MANSION 



The proprietors and the people did not get on well 
together. The proprietors were aristocratic, and the 



36 



THE SOUTHERN COLONIES 



people were democratic. They tried several experiments. 

Albemarle and Charleston had separate governors. In 

1 6 9 1 the two were united 
under one governor. 
But trouble continued, 
and the proprietors 
sold out to the king. 
(1729). Again the 
two were divided and 
remained royal colonies 
down to the Revolution. 

GEORGIA THE REAL 
BARRIER 

58. Oglethorpe plants 
a new kind of colony. 

James Oglethorpe was 
the founder of Georgia 
(1732). He was moved 
to this act by the con- 
dition of the poor debtors of England. A man who could 
not pay his debts was thrown in jail. There he might 
stay until he died. This was not so very long usually, 
for the jails were foul places and overrun with vermin. 
Oglethorpe planned to take the fittest of these debtors 
to some colony where they might get a new start in life. 

Still another purpose influenced Oglethorpe. The 
Spaniards were now becoming excited over the growth of 
the Carolinas. The time had come to push "Raleigh's 
barrier" farther south (§24). Patriotic Englishmen now 
came forward, and by the aid of Parliament they raised 
$500,000 to help the new colony. 

59. Savannah settled (1733). Oglethorpe selected 
thirty-five families from among the great number who 




JAMES EDWARD OGLETHORPE 



GEORGIA THE REAL BARRIER 37 

wanted to go. Charleston gave them a hearty welcome. 
They finally selected a place near the mouth of the 
Savannah River. More settlers came, and among them 
three famous men : Charles Wesley, who became a great 
hymn writer; John Wesley, a missionary to the Indians 
and afterwards a great religious leader, and George 
Whitefield, one of the most eloquent preachers who ever 
came to America. 

There soon came to the new colony Salzburgers 
from Austria, Moravians from Germany, Protestant 
Highlanders, Swiss, and Jews. These people were all 
allowed to practice their own religion. 

60. Frederica Georgia's barrier (1736). Frederica 
was settled on an island well down the coast. It was well 
fortified. The Spaniards attacked it only once, and then 
Oglethorpe beat them off and carried the war into Florida. 
Georgia was the last of the thirteen American colonies 
to be settled. 

SUGGESTED READINGS 

References for teachers: Fiske, Old Virginia and Her Neighbors; 
Hart, Contemporaries, I, chaps, xi-xiii; Bassett, Short History, chap. iii. 

References for pupils: Thwaites, Colonies, 64-95; Mace, Stories of 
Heroism, 54-61; Hart, Source Book, 11-14, 48-Si> 7i~73) 88-Q5) loS" 
ioq; Hart, Source Reader, I, 25-28, 98-104, 143, i75-i77'> Coffin, Old 
Times in the Colonies, 97-110. 

Fiction: Johnston, To Have and To Hold, Audrey; Otis, Richard of 
Jamcstoimi. 

PROBLEMS AND PROJECTS 

I. Attend the wedding of Pocahontas and write an account of it 
for a newspaper. 2. Write the story of the "White Aprons" in the 
story of Bacon and Berkeley. 3. Visit the southern colonies in 1740 
and write in your diary what you see. 



CHAPTER IV 



NEW ENGLAND COLONIES 

THE PILGRIM FATHERS 

6i. The rise of the Pilgrims and the Puritans. New 

England was at first a part of "Virginia" (§36), but the 
Plymouth Company had failed in its settlement on the 
banks of the Kennebec (1607). Captain John Smith 
explored and mapped the coast and named New 
England (16 14). But a different kind of people was 
destined for her shores. 

The Reformation caused mighty religious upheavals 
(§22). It divided Englishmen into Roman Catholics 

and English church people. 
Some people in the English 
church wanted to change cer- 
tain forms and ceremonies 
in that church. They wanted 
a purer church, they said. 
Hence they took the name 
"Puritan." Some of them 
broke away from the English 
church and formed independ- 
ent congregations. They 
elected their own preachers, 
and were very democratic. 
These people were called 
Separatists. Most of the 
Puritans, however, remained in the English church 
intending to purify and to reform it. 

38 




A PURITAN MINISTER 



THE PILGRIM FATHERS 



39 




THE OLD CITY OF LEIDEN 



62. The Separatists turn Pilgrims. People in London 
stoned the Separatists, and the king's officers hurried their 
leaders to jail. In the 
village of Scrooby a 
little congregation of 
Separatists worship- 
ed. They resolved 
to fly to Holland, the 
land of dikes and 
windmills. Holland 
had just won its 
independence from 
Spain after a long war and most bitter persecutions. 
The Dutch had made themselves glorious by granting 
rehgious toleration. 

The Pilgrims escaped to Amsterdam and then journeyed 
to Leiden. After a few years their children were marry- 
ing Dutchmen, and in a short time their children's children 
would become Hollanders. For this reason they decided 
to leave for America. 

63. The voyage of the "Mayflower." Their pastor, 
the noble John Robinson, decided to stay in Holland to 
comfort those who could not go. One hundred and two 
sailed under the lead of Brewster, Bradford, and Myles 
Standish. =5 They planned to settle near the mouth of the 
Hudson (§84), but storms drove them to Cape Cod. 
Before landing the men signed the "Mayflower Com- 
pact" to make sure of an orderly government. They 
bound themselves to make "just and equal laws for the 
general good of the colony." 

64. Plymouth settled (1620). The Pilgrims chose 
Plymouth Harbor for a home. They built huts for the 
people, for they were already in the midst of a cold winter 



THE PILGRIM FATHERS 



41 



They had been used to the gentler climate 
and Holland and had not yet learned 




THE '•MAYFLOWER" ON ITS WAY TO AMERICA 



(December). 
of England 
to build warm 
and comfortable 
houses. One-half 
of the little band 
were dead when 
spring came. But 
the Pilgrims had 
stout hearts, for 
not one of them 
returned with the 
"Mayflower" in 
the spring. 

65. Relation to 
the Indians. The 
Pilgrims were on good terms with the Indians. Each 
treated the other well. These dusky warriors taught the 
whites how to capture the wild animals and showed them 
where fish were most abundant. They taught them how 
to raise corn on poor soil by putting a fish in each hill as 
fertilizer. Massasoit, a neighboring chief, came with 
friendly greetings. 

66. The first Thanksgiving Day. Every man had to 
till the soil and raise his crop of corn, wheat, rye, and 
peas. After gathering their first harvest, they decided 
to celebrate by giving thanks to a kindly Providence for 
watching over them and for filling their common store- 
house. The Indians joined with them, enjoying their 
own pastimes. Repeated from year to year, this custom 
has grown into a great national Thanksgiving. 

67. Growth of the colony. The colony grew slowly. 
Several towns sprang up, but when Plymouth joined the 



42 



NEW ENGLAND COLONIES 



New England Confederation (1643) there were not over 
three thousand people in the whole colony. The Pilgrims 
formed the most democratic colony in North America. 
They had no church officers except those elected by them- 
selves. The same was true in government. They debated 
all questions in town meeting, and then voted on them. 
Above all, the Pilgrim Fathers gave to their children a 

noble example 
of manliness, 
of upright- 
ness and of 
trust in God. 
In 1920 
M a s^ a c h u - 
setts and the 
whole country 
celebrated 
the three hun- 




FURNITURE BROUGHT OVER ON THE MAYFLOWER 



dredth anni- 
versary of the "Landing of the Pilgrim Fathers." 



THE MASSACHUSETTS BAY COLONY 

68. Troubles between king and Parliament. The 

English Parliament, composed largely of Puritans (§44), 
refused Charles I money until he made certain reforms. 
Charles had to have money and forced rich men to give 
it to him. This was not legal, and Parliament com- 
pelled him to sign the Petition of Right (162 8). 2" He 
dismissed Parliament, resolved never to call another. 
Charles now put in force harsh laws against the Puritans." 
He threw some of their great leaders into prison, drove 
many of their ministers from the churches, and persecuted 
those who would not attend the Church of England. 



MASSACHUSETTS BAY COLONY 



43 



69. The "Great Migration." Some of the Puritan 
leaders decided to try their fortunes in America. They 
obtained a charter from Charles I for the Massachusetts 
Bay Company (1629). Eleven vessels with over seven 
hundred emigrants led by John Winthrop, sailed for the 
land of promise (1630). More than two thousand left for 
Massachusetts within a year, and more than twenty-five 
thousand migrated before the outbreak of the Puritan 
Revolution ( 1 64 1 ) . The Puritans had more property than 
the Pilgrims. Many were 
well-to-do country gentlemen 
who owned land in England. 
Some, too, had been to college 
at Cambridge. 

70. First settlements and 
governments. Salem had been 
settled by John Endicott 
(1628). Winthrop settled 
Boston, and it soon grew into 
the leading town as the seat 
of government. Other towns 
were soon settled, such as 
Newtown, afterwards changed 
to Cambridge, Watertown, 
Roxbury, Lynn, and Dorchester. 
Congregationalists. Each little band brought its minister 
and soon formed a town which controlled its own 
affairs. Over all these towns, by the charter which 
Winthrop had brought to America, a government was 
established. The officers were the governor and the 
assistants who advised him. 

71. Conservative and progressive parties. Among the 
Puritans some were conservative and some progressive. 




JOHN WINTHROP 



These Puritans were 



44 



NEW ENGLAND COLONIES 




The progressives demanded that the towns send repre- 
sentatives to the general assembly. Representatives were, 

therefore, elect- 
ed to advise 
the governor 
and assistants 
(1634). The 
governor and 
his assistants 
were made into 
an upper house, 
while the repre- 
sentatives from 
the towns sat as 
a lower and 
more demo- 
cratic house. 
This change in 
government 
was made by 
the colony itself 
without advice 
or orders from 
England. 

The progressives did not always have their own way. 
They called for a written constitution as early as 1635 
but did not get the Body of Liberties until 1641. 

Roger Williams had already denounced the law com- 
pelling people to attend church. He was arrested, tried, 
and ordered back to England. He did not go but fled 
to Rhode Island. Mrs. Anne Hutchinson preached 
against a "covenant of works." She, too, was banished.-^ 
During these discussions in Massachusetts, Thomas 



^j.Sulem 1C23 
atekown Ch^le»town 

^>>^ ■,.■■■■■■ K 
4 / V ^ 1 Cape Cudij 



I 16Ji( CUTTVUONlCr<? \'- / 








/m^m 



THE SETTLEMENTS ALONG THE NEW ENGLAND COAST 



OUTSIDE DANGER THREATENS 



45 



Hooker led a company of one hundred people to the 
Connecticut Valley, where they found free opportunity. 
Hooker was progressive and Winthrop conservative. 
They differed but did not quarrel. 



OUTSIDE DANGER THREATENS 

72. The New England Confederation (1643). The 

dangers from the Indian, the Dutch (§§84-89), and the 
mother country led the New Englanders to form a union. 
Four colonies were admitted; Rhode Island was left out. 
Two delegates from each colony met each year to look 
after the common business. Massachusetts, being the 
largest colony, had the most influence. The colonists 
never forgot the lessons of this confederation. 

73. The Puritan Revolution in England (1641-60). 
We saw Charl-es I taking 
things into his own hands 
(§68): he collected money 
without the consent of Parlia- 
ment and forced the English 
church upon Scotland. 
The Scots sent an army 
against him. Charles was 
compelled to call the Long 
Parliament (1641). This 
Parliament, in the hands of 
Puritans, made reforms and 
called Cromwell to organize f/ 1 
the army. They defeated 
and beheaded the king ( §44) . 
Cromwell was now the head 
of the government . He showed the world what the common 
man can do. Americans never forgot the lesson of his rule. 




CHARLES I KING OF ENGLAND 



46 NEW ENGLAND COLONIES 

74. The Quakers invade Massachusetts (1656). Born 

in the stormy times of Cromwell, the Quakers carried their 
religion where it was not wanted. Massachusetts wanted 
only Puritans, and when Quakers came, she hanged four of 
them. But mutterings of rebellion were heard and, much 
to the disgust of many old-fashioned Puritans, the judges 
set other Quakers free. Rhode Island gave the Quakers 
hearty welcome. 

75. Religious toleration. It seems strange to us that 
the Puritans, who had left their native land on account of 
religious troubles, would not let the Quakers stay in 
Massachusetts. After all it was not so very strange. 
For centuries all Europe believed that all people ought to 
belong to the same church. If anyone tried to start a 
new church he was looked upon as a very dangerous 
person, just as we regard traitors today. It was thought 
to be just as much the business of the government 
to protect the people from those who wanted to start 
new churches as it was to protect them from a foreign 
enemy. 

When the Protestant^ Revolution came people had not 
changed their minds very much on this point (§22). 
Most of the new Protestant churches were not tolerant. 
They still believed in having one church. The Puritans 
in America tried to make others obey that rule. If this 
were not done, the Puritans felt that they could never have 
the kind of religious and moral influences they wanted. 
Men only slowly learned that they must tolerate differ- 
ences in church and religion. By 1791 the desire for 
toleration had gained so much that the very first 
amendment to the Constitution was made to declare that 
"Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment 
of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof." 



OUTSIDE DANGER THREATENS 



47 



76. King Philip's struggle (1675). After the defeat of 
the Pequots in Connecticut (1637) the Indians remained 
quiet. Philip succeeded the friendly Massasoit, and 
he saw he must destroy the whites or his hunting grounds 
would be no more. He fought two years, killed one-tenth 
of New England's soldiers, but was himself killed, and 
the Indian power was shattered. 

77. Charles II and James II make trouble. EngHsh 
people had grown tired of the solemn faces, quiet Sun- 
days, and the harsh rule of the Puritans. Shortly after 
Cromwell died they called Charles II to be king amid 
great rejoicing. He hated Puritans and sent certain 
commands to Massachusetts which were not obeyed. He 
finally took away the charter of this colony (1684). He 
died suddenly, and James 
II made Sir Edmund 
Andros governor of New 
England, New York, and 
Newjersey. Andros 
ruled with a high hand, 
abolished New England 
town meetings, taxed the 
people without their con- 
sent, and threw men in jail 
without trial by jury. 

78. The revolution in 
England and the fall of 
Andros (1688). James II 
was a bigger tyrant than 
Andros, and news came 
that England had driven him from the throne (§53). 
The people of Boston rushed together and arrested some 
of the king's officers. Andros fled to the fort in the 



1 





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C^' .^'" 




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^ / . 






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'<>^K^ 




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1 


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THE REGION RULED BY 


5IR 


EDMUND 


ANDROS 





48 



NEW ENGLAND COLONIES 



harbor. Alarm guns sounded, and signal fires burned on 
Beacon Hill. A thousand soldiers gathered, and hun- 
dreds of men, led by a school teacher, swarmed in from 

the country ready to fight. 
Andros surrendered, and 
William and Mary gave 
Massachusetts a new char- 
ter granting toleration to 
all sects (1691).-^ 

NEW HAMPSHIRE AND 
MAINE 

79. Proprietary colonies. 

Mason and Gorges were 
given land between the 
Merrimac and Kennebec 
rivers. Dover had already 
been settled by some 
fishermen and fur traders 
when the owners sent out 
a colony to Portsmouth 
(1630). The grant was 
divided: Mason took what is now New Hampshire, and 
Gorges the larger part and called it Maine. When 
William and Mary granted a charter to Massachusetts, 
they gave her control over these colonies. More and more, 
as they grew stronger, these outposts kept back both 
French and Indian. 

CONNECTICUT AND NEW HAVEN 

80. The beginnings of Connecticut. ' We have already 
seen the democratic Thomas Hooker leading his people 
from Massachusetts to the Connecticut Valley (1636) 
(§71). They plunged into the wilderness, carrying their 




SIR EDMUND ANDROS 



CONNECTICUT AND NEW HAVEN 



49 



tools and arms and taking a goodly herd of cattle along 
with them. Out of this migration grew the towns of 
Hartford, Wethersfield, and Windsor. Hooker called the 
people together and preached them a democratic sermon. 
They set up a written constitution, which was the first of 
its kind in the world (i639).3o They joined the New 
England Confederation as the colony of Connecticut (§72). 
While Massachusetts was in an uproar over Anne 
Hutchinson (§71), a band of London Puritans landed in 
Boston. Eaton and Davenport were the leaders. These 
people were attracted to the region on the north shore of 
Long Island Sound. There they made a settlement 
and named it New Haven (1638). These people were 
among the strictest of the Puritans. They set up a 
government based on the Bible. As in Massachusetts, 
only church members could vote. Other settlements 
were made: Milford, Guilford, and Stamford. With 




THE PILGRIM \Gb TO THE CONNECTICUT VALLhY 

New Haven these towns formed a union (1643) and 
joined the New England Confederation under the 
name of the New Haven colony (§72). 



5° 



NEW ENGLAND COLONIES 



8i. The two colonies united (1662). 

granted to Connecticut by the king, 
democratic government so happily be, 




THE CONNECTICUT AND NEW HAVEN COLONIES 

were hiding in the colony. And so 
Haven to Connecticut as a punishment, 



A charter was 
It continued the 
[\in. The people 
liked it so 
well that 
they kept it 
until 1818. 
But the king 
did not like 
New Haven ; 
two of the men 
who had con- 
demned his 
father to death 
he joined New 



RHODE ISLAND THE MOST DEMOCRATIC COLONY 

82. Origin of Rhode Island (1636). Driven from his 
home in winter, Roger Williams sought shelter with his 
good friend Massasoit (§71). ''For fourteen weeks he 
was sorely tossed in a bitter season, not knowing what 
bread or bed did mean." In June he founded Provi- 
dence as "a shelter for persons distressed in conscience." 
True to his teachings, Williams bought the land from 
the Indians and passed no law touching religious beliefs 
(§71). Other persons driven out of Massachusetts were 
welcomed by Williams to Providence, as he had named 
his refuge. Among them was Anne Hutchinson (§71). 
She was sent out of Massachusetts for holding meetings 
for women. In these meetings they found fault with the 
ministers. Others driven from Massachusetts settled 
the towns of Newport, Portsmouth, and Warwick. 



RHODE ISLAND 



51 



Providence 



83. Union under one charter (1644). . Roger Williams 
had great influence with Parliament, since it was now 
strongly Puritan (§73). He obtained 
a good charter, uniting the different 
towns and permitting them to govern 
themselves. The government under 
this charter was almost as liberal as 
that of a republic. When Charles 
II came to the throne he confirmed 
the charter (1662). So well satisfied 
were the people that they kept it 
until 1842. 



I 'S--L A^ ^N( D 
ATLANTIC 



^h 



oo 



UA 



EARLY SETTLEMENTS IN 

RHODE ISLAND AND 

THE PROVIDENCE 

PLANTATIONS 



SUGGESTED READINGS 

References for teachers: Fiske, The Begin- 
nings of New England; Bassett, Short History 
of the United States, 59-70, 92-97; Hart, 
American History Told by Contemporaries, 
I, chaps, xiv-xxi. 

References for pupils: Thwaites, Colofties, 11 2-1 17; Coffin, Old Times 
in the Colonics, 111-140, 152-170, 184-194, 265-270; Drake, Making 
of New England; Hawthorne, Grandfather^ s Chair; Mace, Stories of 
Heroism, 63-74; Hart, Source Book, 37-41, 80-82; Hart, Source Reader, 
I, 28-30, 57-59, 59-63, 133-136, 136-140, 172-173, 177-182. 

Fiction: Stowe, Mayflower; Austin, Myles Standish; Mrs. Hemans, 
The Landing of the Pilgrims; Longfellow, Courtship of Miles Standish; 
Otis, Ruth of Boston. 

PROBLEAIS AND PROJECTS 

I. Write about the Pilgrims in their three homes. 2. Attend the 
first Thanksgiving celebration. Tell who was there and what each 
did. 3. Visit one of Mrs. Hutchinson's meetings and "report it" 
for the class. 



CHAPTER V 



THE MIDDLE COLONIES 

THE STRUGGLE OF THE DUTCH TO PLANT A COLONY 

84. Holland the home of religious freedom. Holland 
was not great in area nor in the number of its people. 
But Dutchmen were doing big things. They had driven 
the Spaniards out of their country, and their sailors were 
found on every sea. They invaded the East Indies, fought 
the British and the Portuguese, and even now hold some 
of the richest islands in the East.^^ Their manufacturers 
were among the richest in the world. Holland was the 
home of religious toleration (§62), and there the Pilgrims 

were still living 
(1610-20). 

Dutch merchants 
sent Henry Hudson 
to search for a new 
water route to India. 
In the "Half Moon" 
he sailed up the river 
which now bears his 
name (1609).^^ He 
noted the country's 
HENRY HUDSON IN THE "HALF moon" bcauty, thc richncss 

of the soil, and the great number of fur-bearing animals 
in its vast forests. Dutch merchants were quick to take 
advantage of Hudson's discovery. They built a few 
huts on Manhattan Island (1613) and a fort near Albany. 
They made lasting friends with the Iroquois (§33). This 
was a good beginning for the fur trade with the Indians. 




52 



THE DUTCH PLANT A COLONY 



53 



85. The growth of the colony. Holland gave New 
Netherland to the Dutch West India Company. Set- 
tlers had no right to govern themselves, but were ruled 
by a governor and council appointed by the Company. 
The fur traders did not mind much. They pushed their 
way down the Delaware, across to Long Island, and 
to the Connecticut (§80). Governor Minuit bought 
Manhattan Island for less than one cent per acre ! Today 
this is the most valuable land in America. 

86. The patroon system (1629). Real settlers came 
in slowly. The Company tried to hurry up settlement 
by bringing in a part of the feudal system (§6). They 
gave the title of "patroon" and great tracts of land to 
any member of the Company bringing over fifty settlers. 
The patroon was to be lawmaker, governor, and judge. 
The settlers were not to hunt, fish, manufacture, or remove 



''^-i-^^^^'lkf'. 







A MANSION OF A PATROON ON THE FAMOUS VAN RENSSELAER 



ESTATE 



from the plantation. They had to sell their products 
to the patroon and grind grain at his mill. This was the 



54 



THE MIDDLE COLONIES 



first effort to plant feudal conditions in America. It 
did not work well. Neither did other attempts (§ §50, 54). 
87. The Indian war. After the patroons had taken up 
their great estates, other settlers had to invade the hunt- 
ing grounds of the Indians. Neither the settlers nor the 
red men liked this. An Indian war broke out. The 

people suffered a 
great many hard- 
ships, and finally 
demanded a share 
in the govern- 
ment. This was 
refused. 

88. Demand for 
self-government. 
Peter Stu3rv^esant, 
the new governor, 
had been heartily 
welcomed by all 




NEW NETHERLAND AND THE "FIVE NATIONS" 



(1647). But he 
soon made himself unpopular by persecuting Baptists 
and Quakers, and by refusing to the people any real 
part in managing the affairs of the colony. They appealed 
to Holland, and the town of New Amsterdam was 
granted self-government. The town now had eight 
hundred people (1653). 

The people objected to paying for a great walP^ built 
by Stuyvesant to keep out the Indians. They came 
together and pronounced the governor a great tyrant. 
He dismissed them, declaring he obtained his right to 
govern from God and the Company. This statement 
showed the people that they could never hope to get 
representative government from Stuyvesant. 



ENGLISH RULE IX NEW YORK 



55 



89. New Netherland surrenders (1664). Holland and 
England had become rivals on the sea. England cut off 
the Dutch trade from the colonies by the Navigation 
Acts (§179). Terrific sea battles in the English Channel 
were fought between the Dutch and Cromwell's ships. 
Parliament made more laws against Dutch trade in the 




THE DUTCH MOTHERS BEGGING STUYVESANT TO SURRENDER 

time of Charles II, and war followed. English warships 
appeared before New Amsterdam, and Stuyvesant called 
upon the people to defend their colony. But they 
refused; they remembered his tyranny and the freer 
governments around them. Good Dutch mothers, with 
tears in their eyes, begged him to surrender. "Let it 
be so. I had rather be carried to my grave," said the 
brave old governor (1664).^'* 

ENGLISH RULE IN NEW YORK 

90. Meaning of the surrender. From Maine to the 
Carolinas the English now had one unbroken line of 
colonies. New Amsterdam was named New York, and 



56 



THE MIDDLE COLONIES 



Fort Orange was called Albany.^^ 'pj^g settlers were dis- 
appointed, for they did not get a representative assembly 




A VIEW OF THE CITY AND HARBOR OF NEW AMSTERDAM (NEW YORK), 1656 

immediately, but they did get complete toleration in 
religious matters. In the terms of surrender the English 
made it very easy for the Dutch. No property was 
destroyed. They permitted Governor Stuyvesant to 
retire to his Bowery^" or farm, and live out his days in 
peace. The King granted the colony to his brother, the 
Duke of York. 

91. Progress toward representative government. The 
"Duke's Laws," made by a convention of the people, 
were in the right direction: election of town officers by 
landholders, trial by jury, and freedom of worship. 

Andros (§77) was made governor and opposed an 
assembly, but it is said that William Penn urged the 
Duke of York to grant one. Governor Dongan brought 
the news of the Duke's consent (1682). The assembly 
was elected by landholders. It made a good set of laws, 
drew up a "Charter of Liberties," and sent them to the 
Duke for approval. But the Duke was now King James II 
(§77), and not only refused to consent to the Charter of 
Liberties but destroyed the assembly so happily begun. 



NEW SWEDEN OR DELAWARE 57 

92. A representative assembly established. It took 
two revolutions to get a representative assembly: a 
revolution in England and one in New York. When it 
was known in the colony that James II had been driven 
from the throne, a bold German shopkeeper, Leisler, 
took charge of the militia and ruled in the name of 
William and Mary. But many of the wealthier people 
not only opposed military rule, but did not like to 
see the government in the hands of a common man. 
Governor Slaughter arrived, seized Leisler, tried him, and 
when drunk signed his death warrant. William and 
Mary granted New York a representative assembly. 
The people were rewarded after half a century of struggle. 

NEW SWEDEN OR DELAWARE 

93. Founding New Sweden (1638). Just before New 
Sweden was begun, the name of Gustavus Adolphus was 
on every tongue in Europe. It was the time of the Thirty 
Years' War. Gustavus Adolphus, king of Sweden, at 
the head of a well-trained army defeated every general 
sent against him. 2'' The Swedish people caught the enthur 
siasm of their great King and planted a colony on the 
Delaware where Wilmington now stands. They named 
it Christina, after their queen. 

94. A part of New Netherland (1655). The Dutch 
had already planted a post on the Delaware and looked 
with jealous eye upon Christina. Just as soon as a good 
chance came, Peter Stuyvesant sent a fleet of seven shijos 
to compel the fort's surrender. When New Netherland 
became New York, Delaware became a part of it (1664). 

95. Delaware won by the Quakers (1682). Maryland 
needed Delaware to extend her possessions to Delaware 
Bay, but William Penn, the friend of the Duke of York, 



S8 



THE MIDDLE COLONIES 



won the prize and added it to Pennsylvania to give that 
colony an outlet to the sea. The people of Delaware 
finally obtained an assembly and a deputy governor of 
their own. The colony was returned to Penn's control 
(1693-1705), but finally its own assembly was restored. 
Delaware was not backward in the Revolution. 



NEW JERSEY 

96. Early settlements. The Dutch claimed the terri- 
tory that is now New Jersey. They built fur trading 

posts there; the principal one 
was at Bergen. When New 
Netherland became English, 
the Duke of York gave the 
country from the Hudson to 
the Delaware to two favorites, 
Berkeley and Carteret (1664). 
The name ' ' New Jersey ' ' was 
given to this region to honor 
Carteret, who had won fame 
by defending the island of 
Jersey against the soldiers of 
Cromwell (§73). The owners 
were generous, giving to the 
colony a governor, a council, 
an elective assembly, and 
toleration for religious sects. 
Elizabethtown was settled 
(1665), and New Haven 
people, displeased at the fate of 
their colony, settled Newark (§81). They immediately 
organized a town government and decreed that only 
members of the church could vote. 




I ^3^ ■ ^ICape Henlopes 



EAST AND WEST JERSEY AND THE 
SURROUNDING COLONIES 



PENNSYLVANIA THE QUAKER COLONY 59 

97. East and West Jersey. The owners of New Jersey 
charged settlers a small sum for the use of the land. The 
settlers objected, because many of them had paid the 
Indians for the land. To escape the quarrel Berkeley 
sold West Jersey to the Quakers. "We put the power 
in the people," said the Quaker owners. Four hundred 
Quakers from England founded Burlington (1677). 
William Penn, other Friends, and Scotch Presbyterians 
bought East Jersey from Carteret's heirs. 

98. New Jersey and the Duke of York. The Duke of 
York repented giving away so rich a part of his possessions. 
He tried to join New Jersey to New York, but the people 
were strongly opposed to this. William Penn urged the 
case against it with such good arguments that he had his 
way, but Andros was made governor of New Jersey as 
well as of the colonies to the eastward (§77). 

99. New Jersey a royal province (1702). The old 
trouble over rents arose once more. This time the settlers 
resolved to end the matter by an appeal to arms. But 
the owners were now Quakers and opposed to war. To 
escape from the awkward position, they turned the colony 
over to the king. New Jersey was now given the same 
governor as New York but had its own independent 
assembly. The separation came in 1738. New Jersey 
enjoyed toleration, but as in most of the colonies, only 
property holders could vote. The rapid growth of New 
Jersey was not only due to her liberal government, but 
to her genial climate and her freedom from Indian troubles. 

PENNSYLVANIA THE GREAT QUAKER COLONY 

100. Beginnings of the Quakers. In the troubled 
times of Cromwell when the Puritan fought against 
the Cavalier (§73), no nobler sect was born than the 



6o 



THE MIDDLE COLONIES 



Quakers. They were even more opposed to forms and 
ceremonies than were the Puritans (§6i). In America 
they were chased out of almost every colony but Rhode 
Island (§75). The cornerstone of their belief was that 
truth is found out by listening to an "inward voice." 

loi. Democratic teachings of the 
Quakers. According to the Quakers 
all men are equal, since every man has 
the divine inward light. Hence no 
titles should be given to any man, 
and no one should bow or remove the 
hat, not even for the king. Only 
"thee" and "thou" and "friend, " or 
the given name should be used when 
speaking to people. Such disrespect 
was a hard blow at feudal society (§2). 
The Quaker went farther: he was 
opposed to paid ministers. He even 
refused to take an oath in court, or to 
These points were a direct challenge 
to the king's government. Scores 
were thrown into jail for even believing in these doctrines. 
102. William Penn the greatest among the Quakers. 
William Penn was the son of Admiral Penn, the friend of 
Charles II. He was sent to Oxford where the aristocracy 
went to school. Here he was a favorite: a student and 
an athlete. He became a Quaker. It was as if a bomb- 
shell had exploded at his father's feet. He was driven 
from home, but nothing could change him.^^ His father 
finally forgave him. 

William Penn was saddened by the cruel persecution 
of the Quakers, He himself was thrown into the foul 
English jails again and again. His success in the Jerseys 




A TYPICAL QUAKER 

bear arms in war. 
to the church and 



PENNSYLVANIA THE QUAKER COLONY 



6l 



(§97) led him to resolve to spend his fortune in founding 

a colony for the Quakers in America. Charles II 

offered to give him 

Pennsylvania to 

pay the large debt 

the king owed to 

Penn's father. 

Penn accepted the 

offer gladly. 

103. The great 
migration (1681). 
Penn was made 
proprietor of this 
vast region. He 
drew up a charter 
of government. No 
such government 
had ever been made 
by a proprietor: 
freedom of con- 
science regardless of nation, sect, or color; govern- 
ment for the people and conducted by them; reform of 
criminals; trial by jury for both whites and Indians. 

Penn published the news of his "Holy Experiment" 
far and wide. He wrote to the settlers in Delaware that 
he was not coming "to make his fortune great." How 
the people crowded to go! Over three thousand sailed 
the first year for the banks of the Delaware. Over eight 
thousand people were there within five years. No such 
migration had been seen since Puritan times (§69). 

104. Penn goes to America (1682). It was a happy 
company that set sail from England with Penn at its head. 
The shouts that greeted its arrival at Newcastle showed 




WILLIAM PENN 



62 



THE MIDDLE COLONIES 



the joy in the settlers' hearts at seeing William Penn, 
They wore farm clothes, and went through a ceremony 
which was very strange for America. One man gave him 
water and soil, signifying that Penn was owner of the 
land, and another gave him turf and twig, showing that he 
controlled what grew upon the land. All of this belonged 




PENN TREATING WITH THE INDIANS 



to the feudal system of old Europe. But how could 
such ideas grow alongside the democracy of the Quakers ! 

Penn took care to visit the Indians. He won their 
hearts. He ate with them, danced at their feasts, took 
part in their games, and gave them presents. Under the 
shade of a great elm he made a treaty with them which 
remained unbroken. 

105. Founds the City of Brotherly Love (1683). Penn 
looked around the region and selected the site of the 
city of Philadelphia, and there laid out the streets at 
right angles, a new plan for a city. Settlers crowded in so 
rapidly that many had to live in caves dug in the banks of 



PENNSYLVANIA THE QUAKER COLONY 



63 




the Delaware until homes could be built. In the next three 

years twenty-five hundred people made this city their 

home. In 1760 

it surpassed 

Bostoninpopu- 

lation, and for 

the rest of that 

century it led 

the cities of the 

United States. 

Philadelphia 

was the home 

of Benjamin 

Franklin, the 

wisest man in 

America. 

106. Penn's 

troubles. Almost from the beginning Pennsylvania and 
Maryland disputed about the boundary .line between 
them. This was not settled for a long time. Then two 
men came from England and ran the now famous "Mason 
and Dixon's Line." This line, in the popular mind, 
formed the boundary between slave and free states in the 
quarrels between the North and the South. 

Penn was not always wise in choosing governors. 
The people often objected to the ones he named. 
Then, too, the settlers forgot what Penn had done for 
them. They objected to the small amount of "quit- 
rent" given to Penn (§104). This quarrel was kept up 
until the Revolution. But the colony still prospered. 
People came from Germany and Ireland as well as from 
England, until only Massachusetts and Virginia had a 
larger population than Pennsylvania. 



THE EARLY SETTLEMENTS IN PENNSYLVANIA, SHOWING THEIi; 
RELATIONS TO THE NEIGHBORING COLONIES 



64 THE MIDDLE COLONIES 

SUGGESTED READINGS 

References for teachers: Fiske, The Dutch and Quaker Colonies; Hart, 
Contemporaries, I, chaps, xxii-xxvi; Bassett, Short History, 85-88. 

References for pupils: Thwaites, Colonies, 195-217; Hart, Source 
Book, 85-88; Coffin, Old Times in the Colonies, 195-233, 291-302; 
Hart, Source Reader, I, 144-148, 174. 

Fiction: Irving, Knickerbocker'' s History of New York; Brooks, In 
Leisler^s Times; Bynner, The Begum's DaugJiter; Bennett, Barnahy Lee; 
Otis, Peter of New Amsterdam, Stephen of Philadelphia. 

PROBLEMS AND PROJECTS 

I. Write imaginary letters from early Philadelphia to friends in 
England. 2. Write points in a debate whether the Puritans or the 
Quakers were more democratic. 3. You are among the settlers 
receiving Penn on his first visit. What did the settlers say before his 
coming and what after his arrival? 4. Write about the govern- 
ment established by Penn. Tell how it differed from that of the 
other colonies. 




C<(|i<(kt, 1K3, hj Bud, UoN>U| k Ogmiui 



CHAPTER VI 



THE WAYS OF COLONIAL LIFE 



THE PEOPLE 



107. How the people grew democratic. We have 
already noted (§2) how the people of Europe hved when 
America was discovered. Only a few of the nobles, such 
as Lord Fairfax, George Washington's neighbor, came to 






J 'i y 




i; ^J mMf, Jiff .-,■''/ 



^i^ .'fe-^ijl 



n I? 



»•'"■''" 



j^y. 







GREENWAY COURT, THE VIRGINIA HOME OF Z-ORD FAIRFAX 

the colonies. A large number of English gentlemen 
migrated to better their condition. These gentlemen were 
between the nobles and the middle class, but it was from 
the middle class that the colonies drew most of their 
settlers. 

But feudal ideas did not succeed well in America. 
New conditions had to be faced. The settlers had to 
become accustomed to a new climate. They had to 

65 



66 THE WAYS OP COLONIAL LIFE 

clear away the great forests in order to have a place for 
their farms and had always to keep a sharp lookout 
for the Indian. The manner of living tended to put 
people on the same level. Travelers in America during 
colonial times were struck by the democratic conditions 
that existed among the people. 

io8. How the people were distributed. In colonial 
days only a few people lived in cities. The rest were 
farmers. Some lived in small villages, as in New England, 
and went out each day to work on the farm. In the 
South were great tobacco and rice plantations on which 
people lived. In the middle colonies, where no danger 
from the Indian threatened, the farmers occupied their 
own farms. 

In the early days Boston was the leading city, but 
Philadelphia soon overtook it (§105). The other impor- 
tant places in order of size were New York, Charleston, 
Baltimore, and Williamsburg. 

In the early part of this period the settlers located on 
bays and rivers near the sea, because they longed for 
easy connection with the mother country. After a time 
hardy pioneers pushed up the rivers to the mountains. 
Some even crossed the mountains and brought back 
wonderful tales of the country beyond. 

109. The English and non-English. The colonies 
always had more Englishmen than people from the 
Continent in them. The New Englanders were almost 
all English. Maryland and Virginia came next. 

The middle colonies boasted the largest number of non- 
English. The Dutch and Germans in New York and the 
Germans and Scotch-Irish in Pennsylvania gave enter- 
prising and industrious classes to these colonies. The 
Germans were driven by persecution from their homes 



THE PEOPLE 



67 



along the Necker and Rhine. Many occupied the fairest 
portions of the Hudson and Mohawk Valley. The great 
majority, however, went to Pennsylvania, where they 
settled along the banks of the Susquehanna, forming one- 
third of the population of that colony. Some of their 
quaint ways may still be found in the nooks and corners 
of that old state. Germans in 
smaller numbers settled in the 
Carolinas and Georgia. 

The most interesting and charm- 
ing people migrating to America 
were the Huguenots (§22). They 
were driven from their beautiful 
homes in France by the cruelty of 
Louis XIV. More than a million 
fled to other European countries. 
Many came to America. Every 
colony was only too glad to get 
them. They settled in goodly 
numbers in Boston, New York, 
Philadelphia, and Charleston. ^^ 

no. The Scotch-Irish. Of all 
the settlers the boldest and most aggressive were the 
Scotch-Irish, whose forefathers long ago had gone from 
Scotland to Ireland. They were the last to com.e 
into the colonies. They, too, were forced to leave 
their native country — Ireland — because of the hard 
laws of the English Parliament. Of all the people 
seeking freedom from oppression, none sent so many 
to America as the Scotch-Irish. It is estimated that 
more than five hundred thousand in all came to this 
country. Philadelphia was their favorite landing-place, 
though many went to Charleston. Thousands remamed 
4 




A HUGUENOT GENTLEMAN 



68 THE WAYS OF COLONIAL LIFE 

in Pennsylvania, but other thousands swarmed along the 
mountains to the south; they met and mingled with 
their brethren moving north. They owned few slaves, 
lived simply in their frontier homes, and made the boldest 
Indian fighters in America. It was the Scotch-Irish that 
broke over the mountains into Kentucky and Tennessee 
and defended those regi9ns against the Indians. They 
made up the rank and file of the men who joined the 
expeditions against Vincennes and King's Mountain. 

111. Social classes among servants. The colonists 
in migrating left a country where many social differences 
existed. In colonial days there were more social differ- 
ences existing than now. Even the servants had their 
classes.^*' Lowest of these were negro slaves. They were 
lowest, because they were slaves forever unless some 
kindhearted master set them free. Even among slaves 
there were classes: field hands and household servants. 
In all the colonies there were slaves. Only the Quaker 
lifted his voice against slavery. 

Next above the slaves were the white servants. They 
were of two general classes — those who were forced to 
come to America and those who wanted to come. 

112. Forced immigrants. Sometimes very poor young 
men and women and even children were kidnapped in the 
streets of London or other cities and sent to America 
to be sold. They were called "indented servants." 
They were fed and clothed and could be whipped. After 
serving for a term of years as farm workers or house 
servants they won their freedom. The boldest went to 
the frontier where land was cheaper and where social 
differences did not count for much. 

Another class of forced immigrants were vagabonds 
and convicts. The laws of England were very severe in 



THE PEOPLE 



69 



those days. A judge could sentence one to death for 
picking a man's pocket or for stealing five shillings from a 
store. Many humane judges sent prisoners to the colonies 
rather than condemn them to death. Numbers of these 
convicts and vagabonds whom England did not wish to 
support were sent to the colonies and sold. After a few 
years of service they were set free to make their own way 
in the world. 

113. The "redemptioners." Many poor people in 
Europe wanted to come to America, but they did not have 
the money to pay* for the sea voyage. These, too, were 
called indented servants, because they signed a contract 
or "indenture," to serve the captain of a ship for a term 
of years, usually four or five, if 
he would carry them across the 
ocean. When the ship reached 
America the captain would sell the 
contracts to some planter or farmer, 
and the immigrants would work for 
him until their term of service was 
complete. This seems hard, but 
many poor people came to America 
in this way. 

114. Social classes among free- 
men. The small farmer, shop- 
keeper, and mechanic made the 
second social group. They stood 
quite high when we think of char- 
acter. They were a sturdy class, 
bound to get on by saving and 
by educating their boys and girls, 
great majority in every colony, 
they from the peasant farmers of Europe (§2)! 







A COLONIAL GENTLEMAN 

This class formed a 
How different were 



70 



THE WAYS OF COLONIAL LIFE 



To the third and highest class belonged the educated and 
the well-to-do people. It is very clear how wealth and 
education had changed classes since Columbus' time. 

115. How people showed their rank and standing. 
The servant waS extremely polite to people above him. 
He took off his hat and bowed low when meeting them. A 
great deal more respect was shovv^n to the upper classes*^ 
then than now. If a girl married above her rank, her 
parents rejoiced at her good fortune, but if belov/ it, 
she was pitied by her friends. At school and college 
students were sometimes seated, or names were put in 
the catalogues, according to the rank of the father. 

116. How people dressed. The poorer classes some- 
times wore moccasins made of leather and of fur, and 

leather breeches, when cloth 
was not to be had. Since 
colonial times hunters and 
trappers on the frontier 
have worn a peculiar kind 
of clothes. 

The royal governors made 
a great effort to impress 
their importance upon the 
people. Other rich persons 
tried to imitate them. The 
men wore wigs, rich velvet 
coats, knee breeches, and 
silk stockings, and carried 
gold-headed canes. Fash- 
ionable young men wore 
swords and gay, red coats. 

Fashionable women powdered their hair and dressed 

in the latest London styles. 




A HARDY BACKWOODSMAN 



THE PEOPLE 



n 



117. The royal governor's reception in Virginia. In 

no colony was the Old World pomp and pride kept up so 




THE governor's RECEPTION IN COLONIAL DAYS, ONE OF THE GREAT 
EVENTS OF THE YEAR 

well as in Virginia. The great social event was the gov- 
ernor's reception to celebrate the meeting of the House 
of Burgesses (§41). It was an interesting topic for talk 
among the women for days before. In his great coach 
decorated with the family coat of arms and drawn by fine 
horses, the planter and his family journeyed to the capital. 
Before and behind them rode negro servants on horse- 
back, all proud to belong to such a master. 

What noisy scenes in the old capital town of Williamsburg ! 
How grand and stately the reception! The governor 
and his wife received the people. How happy the 
planters if the governor spoke kindly to them ! George and 
Martha Washington w^ere often seen at these receptions. 

1 18. Rent day on the patroon's estate. On the patroon's 
great farm (§86) took place many interesting events. 
Among them was rent day. The patroon's house was large. 



72 



THE WAYS OF COLONIAL LIFE 



The fine furniture spoke of great wealth. Around this 
mansion ran many walks lined with flowers. Near by 
stood barns with bins for grain and stalls for cattle and 
horses. Nearer still were smaller houses for servants. 
How like the estate of a European lord ! 

When rent day came, the small farmers appeared. They 
brought the patroon's share of the crops in wagons. It 
was a holiday, and everyone was dressed in his best. 
A great feast was prepared: an ox, sheep, or pigs were 
roasted, and white and black servants ran busily to and 
fro. The people ate, drank, and made merry. Every- 
body declared that the patroon was a good fellow. But 
once at home and hard at work, these farmers could not 
help wishing the farms were their own (§86). 

HOME LIFE AND PASTIMES 

119. Colonial homes. The first settlers had to build 
homes in the forests. They joined hands and built 










/>•' 



A T-VPICAL NEW ENGLAND HOME 



houses out of logs. When the cracks had been stopped 
with clay and sticks, when the great fireplace had been 



HOME LIFE AND PASTIMES 



n 



finished, when a door had been cut and windows made by 
pasting in greased paper, the family could move in. 
The majority of houses were made of rough logs, but later 
some were made of dressed logs. Great notches were cut in 
each end of these logs. These enabled the men to fasten 
the logs together. After the sawmill came, "frame" 
houses began to appear. 

The earliest furniture for log houses was produced by 
Ubi.ig the ax, saw, and auger. "Puncheons" were made 
by splitting logs in two. The floor, when there was one, 
was made by laying down puncheons with the flat 
side up. Tables and chairs were made of puncheons 
with legs. Sometimes a bed of leaves and skins for the 
boys was placed in the "loft." To this the boys climbed 
on pegs driven in the wall.^^ 

In cities and on plantations the rich lived in finer 
homes. They imported their furniture and even the 
bricks to make their houses. The homes of Hancock of 
Boston, Morris of Philadelphia, Livingston of New 
York, the Rutledges of 
Charlseton, and Byrd 
of Virginia were 
furnished with the 
best the markets of 
Europe afforded. 

120. Church build- 
ings and blockhouses. 
No sooner had the little 
community built its 
homes than the men 
went to work building 
a church. The church 
was not heated, and 




A BLOCKHOUSE BUILT FOR PROTECTION 
AGAINST THE INDIANS 



74 



THE WAYS OF COLONIAL LIFE 



people in the North carried foot-warmers and kept on 
hats and overcoats during the service. The men carried 
their guns to be ready for an Indian attack. If there were 
great danger from Indians, the men built a blockhouse 
first. It was built of great heavy logs, had portholes 
and an overhanging story. When the alarm was given, 
all the people for miles around ran to the blockhouse 
for safety. For more than two hundred years the log 
cabin and the blockhouse followed the frontier across 
the continent. 

121. The colonial kitchen. In the cabin the parlor, 
living room, and kitchen were one. The kitchen was not 
well furnished. In all there was the great fireplace before 
which cooking was done, but there was no wood, coal, 
nor gas range. There were the iron skillet, copper kettle, 
the iron pot, and maybe the great crane on which pots 
were hung. Bread was baked in the hot ashes, in the 
Dutch oven, or in the skillet. There were wooden and 
pewter knives and forks, earthern bowls and dishes, and 

in a few kitchens 



"silver plate.'' 
A few wooden 
shelves, a wooden 
puncheon above 
the fireplace, and a 
potbench took the 
place of pantry 
and cabinet. To 
one side usually 
stood the spinning 
wheel. And in a 
few kitchens were to be seen chairs or a table brought 
from the old home in England. The poorest kitchens 




A COLONIAL KITCHEN 



HOME LIFE AND PAStIMES 



75 




WHALE 

OIL 

LAMP 



now would have made the colonial dame living in a 
mansion open her eyes in wonder and amazement. 

122. Northern and southern homes. 
In the North where winters were long 
and hard, houses were closely built with 
few doors and windows. There were no 
stoves, and the great fireplace was the 
only means of heating. In the South the 
houses were made to keep cool: their 
verandas and balconies were large, and 
a great hall usually divided the house. 

Colonial days seem far away when we 
remember that there was no electricity, 
gas, or kerosene lamps. Each household 
made its own candles or used tallow dips. 
Few boasted of whale oil lamps. 

123. Pastimes of colonial days. The colonies had some 
pastimes common to most sections. One- of these was 
dancing. While people of New England frowned upon 
this pastime, the young folks in the Dutch settlements and 
in the South often made merry to the sound of the violin. 
Sewing and quilting "bees" belonged to each colony; they 
gave pleasant work for mothers and daughters in the 
daytime, and in the evening young men happened in to 
join in some gay sport. Another pastime common to all 
parts was boating. On the large rivers it was sloop sailing 
with the decks large enough for guests. 

Southern people have always been famed as horseback 
riders. They had to be good horsemen, for their homes 
were far apart. The pastime peculiar to the South was 
fox hunting. Each planter had his stable of horses and 
his kennel of hounds. Old folks, as well as young, joined 
in the chase from early morning until the fox was caught. 



76 



THE WAtS OF COLONIAL LIFE 



The boys of Boston and of Charleston played football, 
not much after the present-day style, however. They 

had many kinds 



V 




i'm3^^^^"^. 



FOX-HUNTING IN VIRGINIA 



of ball games 
such as "town 
around" out of 
which baseball 
grew, and "bull 
pen." Wrestling 
was enjoyed by 
many of the 
more vigorous 
boys, and jump- 
ing games were very common. Winter sports, such as 
skating and sleigh riding, were enjoyed in the North. 

In the South and among the Dutch, simple plays upon 
the stage, gotten up by local talent, gave entertainment 
to the people.- The Dutch and Germans in this country 
made great preparations for enjoying Christmas time. 

COLONIAL EDUCATION 

124. Going to school under difficulties. Everybody 
had to work in old colony days, even the children. This 
made it hard for boys and girls to go to school. There 
were few books then, and little money to buy them. In 
the South attending school was difficult indeed. The 
children lived many miles apart, and roads were very 
poor. Schoolhouses were built without much attention 
to the comfort of the pupils. The floors, if they had any, 
were made of puncheons (§119). This was true also of 
seats and writing desks. The light came through windows 
covered with oiled paper. The teacher was a man 
who had little sympathy with the pranks of youngsters. 




COLONIAL EDUCATION 77 

He knew how to keep them busy only by the free 
use of the rod. Children frequently studied "out loud," 
and as a rule were not 
divided into classes, but 
each child recited his 
lesson alone. 

Only the boys were ^ , :i-^^^^^^ _^^ '^^^ /^%M^ 
allowed to go to the 
public schools. The 
girls received no train- 
ing outside of the home, i ^ --w i. - ^ '- -. 
except when permitted **^ '- 

^ ^ A NEW ENGLAND SCHOOLHOUSE 

to attend a private 

school for girls, "dame schools," as they were called. 

125. Schools in the different colonies. The Puritan 
was a great believer in the Bible. Hence his children 
must be taught to read. When no teacher appeared he 
usually employed the minister. The minister was often 
the teacher in all the colonies. In 1647 the legislature of 
Massachusetts required every town of fifty families to 
provide a school for its boys, and every town of a hundred 
famines to have a grammar school. From these early 
schools grew the pubHc school system of America. 

The EngUsh neglected the schools which the Dutch 
had begun in almost every town in New Netherland. 
Just before the surrender of New Netherland a Latin 
school was estabHshed in New Amsterdam that drew 
students from far-away vSouth Carolina. In New Jersey, 
soon after 1700, every county was required to have a 
school supported by pubhc taxation. The most famous 
of all Philadelphia schools was the Penn Charter School. 
It threw open its doors to both boys and girls, to the poor 
without price, and to the rich for a fee. Outside of this 



78 



THE WAYS OF COLONIAL LIFE 



vigorous city, schools did not flourish in Pennsylvania, 
although parents who failed to teach boys and girls to 
read and write were fined. 

We have seen why schools were few in the South (§124). 
Virginia tried to establish a free school, but the plan did 
not work well. That famous old tyrant, Governor 
Berkeley, in writing to the king, thanked God that 
Virginia had neither printing press nor free schools. In 
South Carolina free schools were maintained by the gifts 
of generous-hearted people. 

But planters everywhere had their children taught by 
tutors or by a minister. 

126. Colleges of colonial times. For half a century 
Harvard (1636) at Cambridge, Massachusetts, remained 
the only college in the colonies. William and Mary 




h" ft 



lJ^f##| 



*^-':;j*^^^^^p*^%®'*^<a^<^^^ — 




h^-^. 






u^^ ^ 



HARVARD COLLEGE IN THE EARLY DAYS 

College at Williamsburg, named to honor the new mon- 
archs of England, came to bless Virginia (1693). The 



COLONIAL EDUCATION 



79 



century was a year old when Yale was founded at New 
Haven, Connecticut. Another half century slipped by 







;:■.■.";;"■"■ .•■; ,-.';'S\'-i:"!';>r,",'.-;/t>^- 

WILLIAM AND MARY COLLEGE ABOUT I72S 

before New England founded Brown (1764). Dartmouth 
at Hanover, New Hampshire, was soon added (1769). 
The middle colonies founded Princeton at Princeton, 
New Jersey (1746), King's College, now Columbia in 
New York City (1754), Pennsylvania at Philadelphia 
(1755), and Rutgers at New Brunswick, New Jersey 
(1770). 

The colonial colleges were little better than the high 
schools of today. They took boys in their "teens" and 
put them through a stiff course in four years. Governor 
Belcher of New Jersey said of Princeton College "that a 
seminary for religion and learning should be promoted in 
this Province, for the better enlightening the minds and 
polishing the manners, of this and the neighboring 
colonies." Hence colonial colleges trained ministers in 
the main. Their courses were made up largely of the 
ancient languages and mathematics. In 1755 Benjamin 



8o THE WAYS OF COLONIAL LIFE 

Franklin was the chief founder of an academy which placed 
as much emphasis upon the study of English as upon the 
ancient languages. This school became the University 
of Pennsylvania. 

The college life of those days would seem queer to us 
now. The students were not so democratic as they now 
are, although there were no fraternities (§115). Organ- 
ized athletics were absent, and the boys spent their leisure 
in pranks for which they were tried by college courts 
and punished by college officers. The colleges of colo- 
nial days were modeled after Oxford and Cambridge 
Universities. It was the custom for the planters in the 
southern colonies to send their sons to England for an 
education. ^3 

127. Self-educated men. The great majority of able 
men in colonial times had been to college either at home or 
abroad. Some had not, and Washington and Franklin 
were among these. These two great men were educated 
in the "University of the World." One other such 
man was John Bartram of Philadelphia, pronounced 
by a great man to be the "greatest natural botanist in 
the world. "^'^ 

128. Reading matter. Libraries. In 1639 the first 
printing press in the colonies was set up in Cambridge, 
Massachusetts. How slow the world would seem to us 
without a newspaper of any kind! The earliest one, 
the Boston Ncivs-Leitcr, appeared in 1704. Before the 
Revolution every colony had one or more newspapers. 
When the first daily appeared, the Pennsylvania Packet, 
the colonies must have thought they were progressive 
indeed. 

The one book found in most colonial homes was the 
Bible. It was the favorite textbook in schools. Other 



RELIGIOUS AND MORAL LIFE 8i 

books were scarce. Town after town had no public 
library. Charleston had the only important library in 
any southern city. A few individuals had, for that time, 
good libraries. The largest was owned by a wealthy 
Virginia planter, William Byrd, founder of the town of 
Richmond. His library numbered thirty-five hundred 
volumes. Cotton Mather, the great New England 
preacher, had a library of three thousand volumes. 

129. Peter Zenger's trial. Near the close of the colo- 
nial period, a New York newspaper — Peter Zenger, 
editor — criticized the governor. The governor had 
Zenger arrested. His trial created intense excitement, 
and Zenger was made to feel how dangerous it v/as 
to find fault publicly with a man high in authority. He 
sent for a great Quaker lawyer, Andrew Hamilton. 
Hamilton declared : " It is not the cause of a jioor printer 
nor of New York alone, .... it is the cause of liberty. " 
The judges set Zenger free, and the crowd shouted, and 
the people of New York gave Zenger a great banquet. 
Never again was the right of free speech in such danger 
in America. 

RELIGIOUS AND MORAL LIFE 

130. Many sects in the colonies. Down to the 
Revolution the English church was established in Vir- 
ginia. Everybody paid taxes for its support. It was 
also, for some time, the established church for Maryland 
and the Carolinas. 

The New England Puritans were Congregationalists 
(§70), and in all the colonies but Rhode Island the church 
was tax supported. Among the Scotch-Irish settlers, 
found in all colonies, the Presbyterians were by far the 
strongest. The Dutch Reformed people were more 



82 



THE WAYS OF COLONIAL LIFE 




GOOSE CREEK CHURCH, SOUTH CAROLINA, IN I70S 



numerous in New York and in New Jersey than in the other 
colonies. The Baptists were strongest in Rhode Island. 

The Lutherans 
were most numer- 
ousamong the Ger- 
mans settling in 
America. There 
were Moravians, 
Mennonites, and 
the Dunkards in 
Pennsylvania. 
Quakers were 
found in nearly 
every colony, but 
the middle colo- 
nies were their home. The Methodist church, founded 
by John Wesley in England (1740), did not make much 
progress until after the Revolution. 

This great variety of sects gradually came to tolerate 
each other as the result of bitter experience. 

131. Severe church ways. The minister. The colo- 
nists were very much in earnest about religion. Mem- 
bers of one sect not only believed other sects wrong, but 
to be avoided. In almost all the first colonies the law com- 
pelled a man to go to a certain church (§75). Protesting 
against this law got Roger Williams into trouble (§71). 

The minister was a great man in the colonies, except 
among the Quakers who had no paid minister (§101). 
He was a college bred man as a rule, and was treated 
with respect. His advice was asked by the head of the 
house and by the officers of the colony. 

132. People strict in keeping the Sabbath. On Sunday 
little work was done even in the home. Every person, 



RELIGIOUS AND MORAL LIFE 



83 



dressed in his best, went to church to hear long sermons 
and visit a bit with neighbors. In New England if anyone 
fell asleep during the sermon, an officer gently tapped him 
on the head. 

133. Two great colonial preachers. One of the great 
ministers in early New England was Cotton Mather. 
He was a college man and could read the ancient lan- 
guages. While still in his "teens" he preached his first 
sermon. He dipped into science a bit and wrote letters 
to learned men on the Continent. He was a great figure 
in the witchcraft trials (§136). Another great preacher 
was Whitefield (§59). He founded in Georgia the first 
orphan asylum in America and was one of the greatest 
revivalists that ever lived. He came to New England, 
where Jonathan Edwards had produced the "great 
awakening," a religious revival. Whitefield split the 
Puritans in two divisions by his preaching (1744). 




PURITANS GOING TO CHURCH 



134. Punishment severe among the colonists. The 

law was cruel in colonial times. Men suffered death for 



84 THE WAYS OF COLONIAL LIFE 

many deeds for which they would now go to jail, be fined, 
or even be set free with a serious talk from the judge 
(§112). But even then the laws were not as severe in the 
colonies as in England. 

Whipping the children in the family for all kinds of 
wrongdoing was very common. Few kindly hands were 
lifted to improve bad children. 

135. Punishment in public. In colonial times punish- 
ment in public was the fashion, but now it is in private. 
The gallows, on which men were hanged, stood in a public 
place, and in nearly every town the pillory and the stocks 
stood where people could see offenders duly punished. 
A ducking-stool stood ready for the woman who slandered 
her neighbors. Scores of men in colonial times bore 
on face and hand marks made by a red-hot iron. A 
milder punishment was to hang around a man's neck a 
card bearing a word showing his offense. The purpose 
seemed to be to strike terror into the hearts of evildoers. 
The one bright spot in the colonies was Pennsylvania 
with the laws made by the humane Quakers for the reform 
of evildoers. 

136. The witchcraft craze. Over two hundred years 
ago, the people in all countries believed in witches. 
They thought persons ugly in form could become the 
companions of evil spirits and obtain aid in bringing 
cruel punishment on those they hated, or "bewitched." 
In 1692 some young people at Salem, Massachusetts, 
acted strangely. They declared that certain persons had 
bewitched them. The excitement spread until the jail 
was full of innocent people. Nineteen were hanged before 
the people of Salem realized that they would all be in 
jail if the craze kept on. They stopped it. In Europe, one 
hundred years later, people were burned for being witches. 



INDUSTRY AND COMMERCE 85 

INDUSTRY AND COMMERCE 

137. Colonial labor. After the early fever for gold- 
hunting had passed, the settlers began to work. They 
found more work and harder work than they had expected. 
But they found one thing in plenty: free land. All land 
in Europe had been taken up by men owning great estates 
(§5)- We have seen, too, how such men tried to bring 
the same plan of land-holding to America (§§50, 54, 86). It 
failed, because America was too big. The settlers who 
wanted to own their own farms needed only to go a little 
farther west, where there was free land in abundance. The 
result has been, even to our day, that nowhere else has 
labor owned so many of the farms it tilled. How different 
in the Old World ! There the wage earner and the tenant 
farmer are still underlings, but in America the farmer is a 
free man. 

138. Common occupations. Farming was the one 
occupation most common, because both food and clothing 
came from it. The North had more farmers than the 
South, because northern farms were small while southern 
plantations were large. None the less, farming was the 
only great occupation in the South. No other could 
compare with it. In all the colonies manufacturing, 
shipbuilding, commerce, fishing, and fur trading were the 
other means of winning a living. In the North many 
people enjoyed the benefits that came from these occupa- 
tions, but in the South only the planters, the few, 
enjoyed the best results of farming. 

139. Ways and means of farming. The settlers 
brought to America the ways of farming used by their 
fathers. In Europe the soil was rested every third year to 
keep it from wearin-g out. But when the ground was 
jiewly cleared, the American farmer did not do even this. 



86 THE WAYS OF COLONIAL LIFE 

When the land began to wear out all the settler had to do 
was to clear a new field or move farther west and take up 
new land. Land was cheap in those days. This waste- 
ful and destructive way of treating the soil has continued 
in some parts to our day. Then the farmer did not 
know what crops are best for the soil. Now we do. 
Now we rotate crops; that is, the farmer raises a different 
crop each year on the same piece of ground. This rests 
the soil and is much less wasteful than the old custom of 
letting the land lie fallow every third year. 

The very tools used by the colonists were ancient. 
They were nearly all made of wood. The colonial plow 
was like that of the Romans. The harrow, aa 
awkward tool, had its teeth made of wood. 
The rake, the 
spade, and the 
fork were also 
wooden. The 
hoe for digging, 
thescythefor 
cutting grass, 
and the sickle 
for reaping grain, were made of iron. It is now clear 
why farmers in old colony times raised but a small quantity 
of any one crop. Because of the primitive tools in use, 
there were no fields with miles of growing corn or acres 
upon acres of waving grain such as may be seen today. 
Machinery to help cultivate and gather the crops makes 
the difference. 

The sickle was capable of cutting only a single handful 
of grain at a time. Men now living have seen the farmer 
use his horses to tramp out the grain on the bare ground 
or on the barn floor. He then threw the grain up against 




TOOLS USED nV THE COLONIAL FARMER 



INDUSTRY AND COMMERCE 



87 



a briskly blowing wind to drive away the chaff. If he 
had a sieve, he put the grain through it to clean it once 
more. It was now ready for the mill. But the mill 
might have been a "hand mill," or a "horse mill," a 
mill turned by a horse hitched to a "sweep." In later 
colonial days water mills were introduced. We can 
understand now why most people in the North had to 
be farmers. 

140. The farmer an independent man. Besides pro- 
ducing what he wanted to eat, the farmer raised flax and 
wool, which his own family made into clothes or bedding. 
Have you never seen the spinning wheel on which our 
great-grandmothers made flax thread ? Or the larger one 
on which they made woolen thread? The power for 
turning the smaller one came from the foot, and for 
turning the larger one, from the hand. The farmer's 
family wove and cut and made 
the clothes they wore. Only the 
rich wore fine clothes imported 
from London. 

The farmers of New England 
and the middle states obtained 
the finest sirup and sugar in 
the world from the maple trees 
growing in the woods. Hogs 
ran wild and fed on the nuts of 
the forest. The result was that 
the farmer 'could have more 
meat than he needed. Besides, 
he added variety to his supply 
by using his rifle on the game 
in the forest. The most independent person in the 
world was the American farmer of the colonial period. 




SPINNING IN A COLONIAL HOME 



THE WAYS OF COLONIAL LIFE 



141. How the planter lived. Some account must be 
given of how the planter managed his great plantation. 




y u i>5 e,'. ,..' >v>»i* '-~^, y\ 



CULTIVATING A CAROLINA RICE FIELD 



The first planters were careful to locate on ocean front 
or river. This gave them easy communication with their 
neighbors and direct connection with the mother coun- 
try. The planter and his laborers made up a sort of vil- 
lage. They «ould produce everything they needed on 
the plantation, but not all they wanted. Their leading 
crop was tobacco, if the planter was a Marylander or a 
Virginian ; rice or indigo, if he was a Carolinian. If he was 
enterprising, he raised corn and wheat, oats and hay, 
and had herds of cattle and flocks of sheep. 

The planter's family obtained fine clothes, shoes, fur- 
niture, and tableware from the markets of London. The 
planter, like George Washington, had his agent in London 
to whom he gave his orders for goods and to whom he 



INDUSTRY AND COMMERCE 



sent his products to be sold. Now and then the planter 
ran deeply in debt to London merchants. 

Many of the more trusty slaves were shoemakers, 
carpenters, gardeners, and blacksmiths. The slaves 
were very proud of their master and of the position he 
held in the community. 

142. When the great ship came to the planter's door. 
The annual ship from England landed at the planter's 
own wharf. For weeks everybody talked of its coming, 
the news it was to bring from old friends, and the fine 
clothes and fur- 
niture fresh 
from the old 
English home. 

How all hands 
worked to get 
the tobacco or 
rice or indigo 
ready for the 
great vessel! 
What excite- 
ment and stir as 
the ship came 
in to view, sailing 
up the river! 
What joy it 
brought to every 
one! Good news 
from the old 
home, some let- 
ters, presents, 
and perhaps some long-absent father or brother or sister! 
Then came the work of unloading what the planter had 




LOADING THE GREAT SHIP AT THE PLANTER'S WHARF 



go THE WAYS OF COLONIAL LIFE 

ordered, and of loading what he had to sell. While this 
work was being done the planter and his family were 
entertaining, in true plantation style, officers of the ship, 
were settling accounts, and giving orders for the next year. 

143. The small farmer a jack of all trades. The small 
farmer belonged in every colony. When not busy on 
his farm he engaged in other labor. While game was 
plentiful, he hunted for food and trapped for fur. He 
might turn his attention to lumbering, shipbuilding, car- 
pentering, blacksmithing, dressing leather, or to making 
hats. Boys were kept busy whittling out forks and butter 
paddles for their mothers, or wooden knives, forks, and 
spoons for the family. They made traps in the winter 
for catching game birds and animals. In the South, par- 
ticularly in North Carolina, many people made tar, 
pitch, and turpentine. 

144. The fur trader. From colonial days until now 
trapping and fur trading have gone on. To the early 
settlers it gave one article wanted in Europe. New York 
soon led in this trade. The Dutch were just the people 
to win the friendship of the Indians (§33). Their first 
cargo of furs brought the thrifty Dutchmen $10,000. It 
was the struggle of the early settlers for this trade that 
first drew them to seek lands toward the setting sun. 

145. The fishermen of New England. When New 
England fishing of all kinds was at its best, it brought 
over $1,000,000 per year. Cod fishing began about 1670, 
and in a few years 650 vessels and over four thousand 
men were in this industry. Twenty years after whale 
fishing began, 260 ships sailed in search of this monster of 
the ocean. The fish were dried for the market, and the 
whale was cut up for his oil. American ships carried 
these products to almost every market in the world. 



INDUSTRY AND COMMERCE 91 

146. The making of ships. Ships were built in every 
colony, but in largest numbers in the North. In fact, 
shipbuilding took its rise in Plymouth very soon after 
the colony was founded (§64). It has been said that 
Captain Adrian Block of New Amsterdam built the first 
ship in the colonies, but New York did not follow up this 
effort immediately. The splendid forests that grew to 
the ocean's edge made it easy for the Americans to build 
the best ships in the world. Very soon the shipbuilders 
in England were sending petitions to Parliament to have 
shipbuilding stopped in America. The English govern- 
ment wanted a large navy, so they encouraged Americans 
to send naval supplies to England. One of the best 
results of colonial shipbuilding was the growth of so many 
different occupations; as woodchopping, logging, saw- 
milling, carpentering, ropemaking, pitchmaking, sail- 
making, blacksmithing, and others. 

147. The iron industry. In all the colonies there was 
iron ore. It was very easy to get, for it was found in 
swamps or bogs. Hence it was called "bog iron ore." 
In the southern colonies the people were too busy with 
tobacco and rice to manufacture iron; they loaded ships 
with the ore and sent it to England.*'^ In the North 
business men built mills for rolling it into shape so it 
could be used. They made tools for the farmer, the car- 
penter, and the blacksmith, and manufactured articles 
for the home. In 1750 Parliament felt that the iron trade 
in America was cutting into English trade ; so they passed 
the Iron Works Act. which checked colonial trade in 
iron (§179). 

148. Colonial manufactures. In colonial days nearly 
everything was made by hand. Then many things 
were made in the same house. Now one thing is 



92 THE WAYS OF COLONIAL LIFE 

made in a great factory filled with machinery driven by 
great engines. Then the father might make shoes or 
furniture while the mother and her daughters spun, 
wove, cut the cloth, and made clothes. 

The hatmakers called on Parliament to keep American 
hats out of their markets. Parliament answered by 
prohibiting the manufacture of hats (1732) (§179). 

149. The manufacture of cloth. From an early day 
the colonists raised sheep for the wool. As they grew 
they made more woolens than they needed. Their ships 
carried the surplus to the West Indies and to Europe, 
where they met English goods. Parliament passed its 
famous Woolens Bill (1699), declaring that no wool nor 
woolen goods should be "exported .... out of the 
said English plantations to any of the other plantations 
or to any place whatsoever." 

Hemp was preduced for rope in Maryland and Virginia, 
flax for linen in the more northern colonies; and cotton 
in the South had made a small beginning. 

150. Home commerce. The very first trade with 
Indians was for something to eat and furs to wear. The 
Indians loved colors, cloth, glass beads, or other trinkets. 
They soon learned, also, to demand guns and hatchets. 

The rise of towns caused a demand for farm products, 
for dried fish, lumber, and rum. The colonists had 
very little money. Hence most of their trade was 
carried on by giving so many pounds or bushels of one 
thing for so many pounds or bushels of another. This 
way of trading is called barter. 

151. Travel and communication. We have seen that 
early settlers located on harbors or on rivers, because 
travel by land was slow and dangerous. Small rowboats 
and canoes were the means of travel on the smaller rivers. 



• INDUSTRY AND COMMERCE 93 

On the larger streams articles of trade as well as passen- 
gers made their way in the wind-driven sloop. From city 
to city along the coast travel and trade made the distance 
in small sailing ships. 

As people grew in numbers, they pushed away from 
seacoast and river. Other means of travel were used. 
The Indian trails were followed at first. The season when 
travel was easiest was winter, when the sleigh was used. 
Until almost Revolutionary times there were no roads for 
the stagecoach. In 1756 a stagecoach between New 
York and Philadelphia, called the "Flying Machine," 
traveled ninety miles in three days. A postman on 
horseback carried the mail between the larger towns. 
In 1753 Benjamin Franklin was appointed deputy 
postmaster-general for all the colonies. 

152. Foreign commerce. Articles made in the home- 
land had first rank in the minds of the settlers. This 
made trade with England easy. Tobacco, rice, and 
naval stores (pitch, turpentine, and tar) were shipped out 
by the southern colonies, while the northern and middle 
colonies sent masts, salted fish, lumber, pig iron, flour, and 
salted meat. In return England sent coffee, tea, cutlery, 
silks, wines, cloth, ironware, and implements of various 
kinds. The colonial shipowner often sold his vessel, 
for American ships brought high prices in Europe. 

153. Rum and the African slave trade. The New 
Englander carried some of his goods to the West Indies 
and traded them for sugar and molasses. He took these 
home and manufactured them into rum.^^ A part of the 
rum was sold at home; a part was traded to the Indians 
for furs ; a third part was carried to the West Indies and 
traded for more sugar and molasses; and the rest was 
carried to Africa, where the chiefs were glad to get it in 



94 • THE WAYS OF COLONIAL LIFE 

exchange for slaves. The slaves were carried to America 
and sold in the West Indies and in the colonies. ^^ 

154. West Indian trade leads to smuggling. England 
owned some of the West Indies.'*^ The Spanish and 
French West India Islands were not open to Englishmen 
for trade. Englishmen at home set the example to 
Americans in smuggling goods to these islands. The 
American colonist became a double smuggler when he 
got by the French or Spanish custom officers, and then 
brought his cargo to America and outwitted the English 
custom officers. 

155. Piracy everywhere. Smuggling was not piracy, 
but sometimes smugglers turned pirates. Along the coast 
from Maine to the West Indies pirates were to be 
found. It is said that one of the colonial governors 
sold them licenses. Captain Kidd, a bold seaman, sailed 
to hunt them down, turned pirate himself, and became 
the terror of the sea. Besides Kidd there were French, 
Bonnet, and Blackbeard, all famous pirates. Finally the 
colonists and the English drove the pirates to the Spanish 
West Indies. 

HOW THE COLONIES WERE GOVERNED 

156. Why the colonists loved England. The majority 
of the colonists were warmly attached to England. 
They had good reason to look up to England. Her 
government was not only the freest among European 
nations, but she had given the colonies a more liberal 
government than any other nation would have done. But 
Englishmen had to battle with their monarchs now and 
then in order to keep their government free. The colonists 
could always point with pride to those great charters of 
liberty: Magna Charta (12 15); the Petition of Right 



GOVERNMENT OF THE COLONIES 95 

(1629); and the Bill of Rights (1689).^^ The settlers, as 
Englishmen, claimed the rights named in these grants. 

157. The monarch's blunders. The colonies had a 
more perfect system of self-government than England had: 
England had a king and a House of Lords. It is true that 
this king was sovereign over the colonies, but he acted 
through governors or proprietors. Two colonies, Rhode 
Island and Connecticut, elected their own governors. 
While the colonies were small the king paid little attention 
to them. He made the mistake of trying to manage them 
after they had grown great in numbers. The monarch 
ceased to use the veto power in England (1707), but 
made the blunder of continuing to veto colonial laws. 

158. Where our state governments came from. "The 
roots of the present lie deep in the past." We realize 
the truth of this when we think of how our present state 
governments grew out of colonial governments. The colo- 
nial governor vetoed laws he did not like and put others in 
force. The colonial governor sent messages to the leg- 
islature, appointed officers, and was a great figure at social 
gatherings. Our governors do all of these things. 

To aid the governor the colony usually had a council 
made up of leading men. This council in some colonies 
had the right to help make the laws. Out of this council 
our senate has grown. 

But the people of the colonies took pride in their repre- 
sentatives. They elected them then as now. Not all 
the people voted, but mainly persons owning property. 
In some colonies a voter or office-holder must hold 
certain religious doctrines. The members of these lower 
houses kept a sharp lookout over what the governor did. 
They objected when he spent too much money and if he 
did not please them sometimes cut down his salary. 



96 THE WAYS OF COLONIAL LIFE 

159. Where our local governments came from. In 

New England the settlers formed little groups around a 
church and a school (§70). Each group chose a name 
and became a town or township. The New England 
town included both the village and all the farms near it. 
From this town two representatives were elected to the 
assembly. This town had its own government. The 
men met to talk over the town's welfare. At this meeting 
leaders, called selectmen, were elected to look after the 
government. In most northern towns we have a similar 
government. These town-meetings gave New England 
people a fine training in self-government. 

The southern colonists did not gather into towns but 
settled far apart on big plantations. They had county 
governments. The leading officer was called the sheriff 
after the officer of an English county. We, too, have a 
county officer so named. 

SUGGESTED READINGS 

References for teachers: Lodge, SJiort History of the English 
Colonics, 74-454; Roosevelt, Winning of the West, I, 110-125; Bogart, 
Economic History of the United States, 36-88; Bogart and Thompson, 
Readings in the Economic History of the United States, 1-142; Hart, 
Contemporaries, I, chap. i;.Hart, American Statesmen and Patriots, I, 
238-243. 

References for pupils: Thwaites, Colonies, 186-188, 222-224, 
280-281; Earle, Child Life in Colonial Days, Home Life in Colonial 
Days; Hart, Source Book, 88-92, 11 5-1 23; Hart, Source Reader, I, 67- 
70, 143-144, 159-162, 177-180, 184-186; Mowry, Inventions and 
Inventors, 187-206. 

Fiction: Robinson, Lads and Lassies of Other Days, Little Puriiaiis' 
First Christmas; Stockton, Stories of New Jersey; Paulding, The Dutch- 
man's Fireside. 

PROBLEMS AND PROJECTS 

I. Describe a colonial "dandy." 2. You are a Scotch-Irishman 
living on the frontier. What are yovir experiences? 3. Write letters 
to a southern boy or girl telling of northern fun in winter time. 4. Get 
letters from the colonial South. 




North America 
in 1750 

The conflicting Spanish, French 
»nd English claimB 
English (~] Spanish [H! 
French CJ r,Ji'.'*"s1iI D 
Unexplored 
SCALE OF Miles 



i,bt. IMI. bT Bui^ UuNillr * OnBipuT 



CHAPTER VII 
THE BATTLE FOR NORTH AMERICA 

THE RISE OF NEW FRANCE 

i6o. The French and the Newfoundland fisheries. 

John Cabot and the Cortereal brothers (1501) took back 
to Europe stories of immense numbers of fish in the waters 
near Newfoundland. As a result, as early as 1504 French 
fishermen were visiting the fishing grounds, and by 1522 
they had built some houses on shore. They came every 
year and built up a flourishing business. By 1577 they 
had one hundred and fifty ships on the Banks, many 
more than any other nation. We have read of the work 
of Verrazano and Cartier, but no permanent French 
settlement was founded for a long time (§22). In 1604 
De Monts founded Port Royal, later called Annapolis. 

161. Samuel Champlain, the founder of New France 
(1608). Champlain planted the first permanent colony 
in Canada at Quebec, one year after Jamestown was 
settled by the 
English. He soon 
joined with the 
Algonquin Indians 
(1609) in a war 
against their 
deadly enemies, the 
Iroquois (§34). On 
the shores of Lake 

Champlain they the defeat of the iroquois at lake champlain 

met with savage yells. The ranks of the Algonquins 
opened, and Champlain, clad in steel and armed with a 











i — . \ '^ u. 



97 



98 



THE BATTLE FOR NORTH AMERICA 



/^V.\ 



weapon never before seen by the Iroquois, stepped 
forth. He fired, and two Iroquois chiefs fell. Other 
shots immediately followed, and the ' ' boldest and 
fiercest warriors of North America ' ' ran frightened through 
the woods. From that day, for over a hundred years 
the Iroquois kept the French from coming into New York. 
162. Marquette and Joliet. Marquette and Joliet 
went from Quebec in search of a great river called the 
"Father of Waters" (1673). From Mackinac they went 
through Green Bay and up the Fox River to the portage. 
The Indians carried their canoes to the Wisconsin, and 
down this charming river they floated to the Mississippi. 
On the bosom of this broad stream they were carried for 
many days. They reached the mouth of the Arkansas. 

J Satisfied that the 

Mississippi River 
flowed into the 
Gulf of Mexico 
they now made 
their slow way 
back. Johet went 
home to Quebec, 
but Marquette 
built a cabin on 
the site of the city 
of Chicago (1674). 
He died soon after, 
a missionary to the 
Indians. 

163. La Salle 
and Hennepin. 
La Salle was greatest among the early French explorers. 
He resolved to hold the Mississippi region for his beloved 




LA SALLE AT THE MOUTH OF THE MISSISSIPPI 



THE RLSE OF NEW FRANCE 



99 



France (1679). His expedition started from Canada and 
went by way of the St. Joseph and the Kankakee rivers 
to Peoria Lake. He returned to Canada, and Hennepin 
paddled on down to the Mississippi and up that stream 
to the Falls of St. Anthony, where now stand the great 
cities of St. Paul and Minneapolis. La Salle returned 
and passed down the Mississippi River to its mouth 
(1783). He took possession and named the region 
Louisiana in honor of the king of France, Louis XIV. 




THE SETTLEMENT OF NEW ORLEANS AS IT APPEARED IN I719 



164. Louisiana. The plans of the French. How the 

Frenchman's heart leaped for joy as he looked forward to 
a vast empire in the heart of America! The king sent 
La Salle with an expedition to settle at the mouth of the 
Mississippi (1684). But La Salle missed the place, 
wandered about in Texas, and finally was murdered by 
one of his own men. France was not discouraged. She 
settled Biloxi on the Gulf (1699), and Mobile farther east 
(1702). In rapid succession she built forts Assumption, 
Rosalie, and New Orleans (i 714-18). Already some 
Frenchmen were coming west and south from the Great 
Lakes. They, too, had built a strong chain of forts. 
The English had not yet broken over the AUeghenies, 
and the French did their work in safety. 



lOO THE BATTLE FOR NORTH AMERICA 

THEIR FIRST CONFLICTS 

165. King William's War and Queen Anne's War 
(1689-1713). We have already seen the great changes 
made in the colonies by William and Mary (§§78,92). The 
king of France, Louis XIV, hated the new king of England 
and decided to make war. The English colonies were 
only too glad to join the mother country. The main 
French and Indian events included attacks on the frontier 
towns of Schenectady, Salmon Falls, Haverhill, and 
Deerfield. The English replied by attacking Acadia in 
both wars. They changed its name to Nova Scotia, and 
Port Royal to Annapolis (§160). The treaty of Utrecht 
gave England possession of the Hudson Bay country and 
Newfoundland. This was the beginning of the end of 
New France. 

166. King George's War (1744-48). For over thirty 
years England had no war with France, thanks to a great 








%p. ' ■' ^ /'^^^ 



THE CAPTURE OF LOUISBURG 



English statesman, Robert Walpole. France had forti- 
fied Louisburg, the key to the St. Lawrence. When war 



THE GREAT STRUGGLE 



finally came, England sent great fleets carrying several 
thousand soldiers to attack Louisburg. New England 
raised four thousand more men, and the fortress fell (i 745). 
Great was the joy in the colonies. Their disappointment 
at its return by treaty to France was made lighter by a 
gift from Parliament to help pay the cost of the war. 

THE GREAT STRUGGLE 

167. In the first West. Causes of the war. Many 
colonial grants, according to their charters, ran from sea 
to sea. But the French cared nothing for English charters. 
Their fur traders pushed south as the English pushed 
north. They met in the Appalachian region, the West of 
that time. 

This was a wonderful region of vast forests, with rich 
soil in the valleys and with abundant animal life. It 
jvas already occupied by the Scotch-Irish (§110). 

The Ohio Company 
had obtained 500,000 
acres near the source of 
the Ohio River. Settlers 
were getting ready to go 
into this region. The 
French, too, were coming 
down the Allegheny River 
to the source of the Ohio. 

168. Washington's 
first public service. 
Washington^^ was a fine- 
looking young man; tall 
and strong, and able to 
outdo his fellows. Although he was not 3^et twenty-one, 
the governor of Virginia picked him to order the French 




VV.\SHINGTON ON HIS WAY BACK FROM 
THE FRENCH POSTS 



I02 



THE BATTLE FOR NORTH AMERICA 



out of the Ohio Valley region. They refused to go, and 
he was put at the head of troops to push to the source 







"%^^r 



INDIANS ON THEIR WAY BACK TO CANADA WITH THEIR PRISONERS 

of the Ohio. He fought two skirmishes, winning one and 
losing one. He was compelled to surrender. War had 
now begun. 

169. Other preparations. The Albany union (1754). 

The French were trying hard to win the Iroquois; hence 
English colonial delegates were sent to Albany to treat 
with the Indians. Not all the Indian chiefs came. They 
plainly told the English : ' ' The French are men ; they are 
fortifying everywhere. But, we are ashamed to say it, 
you are like women." The Indians were given presents 
and went away happy. 

The colonies had long felt the need of some kind of 
union. The delegates adopted a plan prepared by 
Benjamin Franklin. Neither king nor colonies would 
have it. They faced the war broken into thirteen parts, 



THE GREAT STRUGGLE 



103 



while the French were united. The governor of Canada 
could order every Frenchman in Canada into the army. 
The colonies could only ask for volunteers. 

170. Braddock's defeat (1755). England sent General 
Braddock with a small army to help the colonists. They 
joined him in a campaign against Fort Duquesne on the 
Ohio. He was brave but haughty. He refused the 
advice of Franklin and Washington that he get ready 
for an Indian surprise. He marched along a narrow 
road through the deep forests. Near the fort the Indians, 
yelling like demons, fired upon his troops from behind 
trees. The soldiers could not see the Indians and ran 
away after many of their comrades had been shot down. 




WASHINGTON AND THE VIRGINIANS SAVE BRADDOCK S ARMY 



Braddock was mortally wounded. '^^ Only Washington 
and his Virginians saved the army from total wreck. 



I04 



THE BATTLE FOR NORTH AMERICA 



171. Washington on the frontier. The Acadians. 

The House of Burgesses gave Washington hearty thanks 
for his bravery. He hastened into the Shenandoah Valley 
to guard the frontier families from the tomahawk and the 
scalping knife of the Indians. He won name and fame in 
protecting this "backdoor" to the colonies. 

The English were successful against the Acadians'who 
were French and lived in far-off Nova Scotia (§165). 
They loved their native land and refused to be loyal to 
the English flag. They were taken from their homes 
and scattered among strangers from Maine to Georgia. ^^ 

172. The Seven Years' War. The French and Indian 
War was a part of the struggle in Europe which we know 
as the Seven Years' War. France, Russia, and Spain 
joined Austria in trying to defeat Frederick the Great of 

Prussia. England went to 
the aid of Frederick. England ' 
sent her soldiers to America 
and her money to Frederick. 
The English navy, the most 
powerful in the world, guarded 
the sea and kept France from 
sending troops to America. 
This war raged at the same 
time in America, in Europe, 
and in far-away Asia. 

173. Pitt to the rescue. 

For two years (1756-57) 

France won every battle in 

America. She was united. The Enghsh sent over poor 

generals, while the French had a great soldier, Montcalm. 

The EngHsh turned out their worthless ministers after 

two years of defeat and called WilUam Pitt, the great 




WILLIAM PITT 



THE GREAT STRUGGLE 



105 




JAMES WOLFE 



statesman, to the head of 

the government. Pitt was 

a man of boundless energy 

and enthusiasm. He did 

everything at once. He 

sent more money to 

Frederick the Great, 

raised more soldiers to 

send to America, and 

selected new generals 

because of their fighting 

ability. The colonies 

caught his enthusiasm and 

voted more men and more 

money than their share. ^^ 
174. Pitt's generals. Pitt 

sent a great fleet and army 

against Louisburg (§166). The walls of the fort crumbled, 

and the mouth of the St. Lawrence River was now open. 

Pitt sent Howe to attack 
Fort Ticonderoga with the larg- 
est army yet seen in America, 
fifteen thousand. Everything 
promised victory until Howe was 
killed. ^^ Nearly two thousand 
men fell, the largest number yet 
killed in an American battle. 
The English retreated. 

General Forbes gathered an 
army and captured Fort 
Duquesne. Washington raised 
the British fiag over that frontier 
post. It was named Fort Pitt in 
LOUIS JOSEPH DE MONTCALM houor of that grcat Englishman. 





THE VICTORV OE WOLFE 



THE GREAT vSTRUGGLE 



107 



175. The fall of Quebec. While Niagara and Oswego 
were being captured and Sir William Johnson and General 
Amherst were driving the French from Ticonderoga and 
Crown Point, General Wolfe was moving against Quebec. 
After Louisburg, Quebec was the key to Canada. Wolfe's 
cannon easily knocked to pieces the lower town. But 
Montcalm's real fort was the high bluff of the St. Lawrence 
called the Plains of Abraham. 

One night, after a wait of three months, Wolfe's men 
clambered up the heights and were ready for battle in the 




-rl-'^VS-^J^Si^^lS 



THE DEATH OF GENERAL WOLFE 



early morning. Montcalm advanced to the attack. 
The British held their fire until the French were near. 
The French line wavered, broke, and fled. Wolfe and 
Montcalm both fell mortally wounded. "I am happy," 
said Montcalm, "I shall not live to see the surrender of 
Quebec." Wolfe, hearing the cry of victory and told 
that the French were running, said with a smile on his 
face, "Now God be praised! I shall die in peace. "^^ The 



lo8 THE BATTLE FOR NORTH AMERICA 

next year Montreal fell and all Canada became English. 
The dream of a New France had passed away forever. 

THE MEANING OF THE VICTORY 

176. To the world. The treaty signed in Paris (1763) 
was proof of England's victory. England received Florida 
from Spain. Spain received all of Louisiana west of the 
Mississippi from France. In far-off India, England laid 
the foundations of her vast possessions which now reach 
round the world. But most important of all, Canada 
and the land east of the Mississippi fell to England. 

To America it meant the triumph of the ideas of the 
"glorious revolution" (§78). In all New France there 
had never been a representative assembly, town meeting, 
trial by jury, a free school, or religious toleration. The 
English colonies rejoiced in all of these institutions. The 
people of New France, only eighty thousand in number, 
were under the rule of a tyrant king, but the people of 
the colonies, over a million were their own rulers. 

177. To England and America. The English colonies 
were' wild with joy when they heard of the capture of 
Quebec. Bells rang, cannon boomed, bonfires burned, 
and candles and whale oil lamps were set in the windows. 
The colonists were proud of the English name. They 
were glad to welcome three new colonies: (i) Canada, 
(2) Florida, and (3) West Florida on the Gulf. 

Both England and the colonies went deeply into debt. 
The war had been a sort of training school for Americans. 
It taught them what a campaign can cost in money 
and in food. Thereafter many of their soldiers were well 
trained and later made good officers in the war of the 
Revolution. As a result of the war the colonists knew 
each other better. They had fought together, sorrowed 



THE MEANING OF THE VICTORY 109 

over the same defeats, and rejoiced over the same victories. 
The ties of union were made stronger. 

This war removed the French menace. "Do you not 
see," asked a French statesman of an EngHshman, "that 
Canada in the hands of France will serve to keep your 
colonies in the dependence which they will not fail to 
shake off the moment Canada is ceded?" 

SUGGESTED READINGS 

References for teachers: Parkman, Pioneers of New France, 46-47, 
80-S8; Thwait'es, Colonies, 246-257; Hart, Formation of the Union, 
24-30; Lodge, Washington ("American Statesmen Series ")» I> 64-78; 
Fiske, New France and New England, 58-132, 249-259; Roosevelt, 
Winning of the West, I, 25-48; Hart, Contemporaries, II, 140-144, 
320-322, 346-348. 

References for pupils: Mace, Stories of Heroism, 106-110; Mace, 
Washington, a Virginia Cavalier, 46-66; Hawthorne, Grandfather's 
Chair, 140-169; Hart, Source Readers, II, 32-44; Hart, Source Book, 
98-107. 

Fiction: Otis, Hannah of Kentucky; Oxley, Fife and Drum at 
Louisburg; Seawell, A Virginia Cavalier. 

PROBLEMS AND PROJECTS 

I. Go with Champlain and the Canadian Indians down the St. 
Lawrence and up Lake Champlain to their battle with the Iroquois. 
Write what you see and hear and what the effect will be. 2. Go down 
the Mississippi with Joliel: and Marquette. Write an accountof the 
trip to friends in France. 3. Take a trip from Quebec through the 
Great Lakes and down to the Gulf. Describe France's "dream of 
empire." 4. You are one of Washington's guides to the French. 
Write up the story. 5. Write a paper justifying Pontiac's conspiracy. 



CHAPTER VIII 

SEPARATION FROM ENGLAND AND UNION 
AMONG THE COLONIES 

REASONS FOR THE REVOLUTION 

178. Europe's way of treating colonies. The colonists 
rejoiced in belonging to a nation that had its possessions 
in India, Europe, and America. 

Ancient nations had planted colonies to enrich the 
merchants of their own countries. Spain and France 
treated their colonies in the same way. Their trade, 
religion, and government were under the thumb of the 
monarch. To keep colonial trade for their own mer- 
chants, no other nation was permitted to trade with their 
colonies. . If colonial goods came into markets where the 
mother country traded, laws were passed to prevent this 
competition. Before 1750 English colonies everywhere 
enjoyed freer trade, freer religion, and freer government 
than the colonies of any other nation. 

Yet it must be understood that England planted 
colonies to benefit herself. She felt that her interests 
came first, even before those of the colonies. She wanted 
to build up her navy by having all goods sent to and from 
America in English ships; she wanted the colonists to 
send most of their products to England and not to other 
countries, and she wanted a market for her manufactures 
in America. She was willing for the colonies to have a 
good deal of freedom in some matters, but after all she 
expected to control them so as to make herself rich and 
strong, and not so as to benefit the colonies. 



REASONS FOR THE REVOLUTION 



179. The Navigation and other laws. The Navigation 
Laws (§89) crippled the American trade, because they 
declared that all goods must be carried to England in 
English or colonial ships; that goods coming to the 
colonies must first be taken to England. 

The Sugar Act (i 733) struck a deadly blow at the sugar 
and molasses trade with the French and Spanish West 
Indies (§153). Other acts regarded as oppressive were 
the Hat Act (§148) and the Iron Works Act (§147). 
Although the navigation and trade laws dated as far 
back as Cromwell's time, they had never been really 
enforced. Grenville, the new prime minister, and 
George III, the new king, decided to make the colonists 
obey these laws. 

180. A new king brings new ways (1760). George III 
was ruler of Hanover, in Germany, while he was king of 
England. He had been educated 
by tutors and had been taught to 
believe it the king's duty to win 
the power lost in the two great 
revolutions (§§73, 78). Most of 
the Tories supported him. He 
broke the Whig party into 
factions by bribes and gifts of 
office. Many statesmen feared 
for English liberty. Pitt, Burke, 
Fox, and other Whigs never gave 
up the fight against him. We 
would expect this king to have 
a new plan for governing his 
colonies. 

The king needed money as a result of the French and 
Indian wars (§177). In 1761 he tried to collect the 




GEORGE III, KING OF ENGLAND 



112 



UNION AMONG THE COLONIES 



custom duties in America by using search warrants, called 
Writs of Assistance, for smuggled goods. This enraged 
the people,^" but he got very little money. He sent the 
navy to suppress smuggling, but injured the trade with 
the West Indies. Still he got little revenue. 

i8i. The Stamp Act. America might have submitted 
to these acts if England had not passed the Stamp Act. 
This was a direct tax^^ on legal and business documents and 
newspapers. No one could even get married without 
paying the tax. The money was to support ten thousand 
troops to be kept in the colonies. The people at once 
cried out, "Taxation without representation is tyranny." 

Patrick Henry of Virginia denounced the law, declaring 
before the burgesses: "Caesar had his Brutus; Charles I 
his Cromwell, and George HI — " "Treason!" shouted 
•the speaker — "may profit by their example." 




PATRICK HENRY ADDRESSING THE HOUSE OF BURGESSES 

The bolder men in the colonies formed the "Sons of 
Liberty," while the merchants made non-importation 






I* 



i^---rtfC )lV" 









<i^ 



V 



^ 1 5i'\\ 









j,^^OCK«t 









^^;':i° 









*Phi« 







Jc. cm 



^;;v^ 



Augusta 











^ Cb«le«4yFt.Moul<rt« 



^^^'^""'^"^8. 



DURING 

THE REVOLUTION 

lowing rhe territory-covered 
by the various campaigns 

SCALE OF MILFS 



ih 60 75 100 



OorTTif ht, 1W3, b; Bud, UaNtllr * Oai>;ur 



REASONS FOR THE REVOLUTION 



113 



agreements. The colonists made agreements among 
themselves that they would not import any goods from 




RESISTANCE TO THE STAMP ACT 

England and would not use any articles that came from 
that country. The British merchants were hard hit; 
they felt that Parliament had gone too far. 

Mobs in America rushed about the streets, ricUng stamp 
agents on rails and crying, "Liberty, property, and no 
stamps. ' ' In New York a torchHght parade carried figures 
of the royal governor and Satan and burned them in the 
governor's presence. 

182. The Stamp Act Congress (1765). The growing 
feeling of union demanded a congress. Delegates^^ from 
nine colonies met in New York. They asserted that 
the colonists were Enghshmen; that they could not be 
represented in Parliament, and that they could be taxed 
only by their own assemblies. They sent an address to 
the king and a petition to Parliament. Gadsden declared : 
"There ought to be no New England man, no New 
Yorker, known on this continent, but all of us Americans.." 



114 



UNION AMONG THE COLONIES 



183. Parliament repeals the tax (1766). The Whigs of 
England were now stirring. Englishmen stormed Parlia- 
ment demanding the repeal of the act.^^ Pitt declared 
that he "rejoiced that America resisted." Lord Camden, 
a great judge, agreed with the Americans, and Burke 
spoke against the folly of such a law. Lord Rockingham, 
now prime minister, introduced a resolution repealing 
the Stamp Act. Had it not been for the Whigs, the 
law would very likely not have been repealed. America 
and England were ablaze with bonfires! Whigs in both 
countries rejoiced in the victory. 

184. The Townshend Acts (1767). Still England got 
little money from America. Townshend put duties on 
paper, tea, paints, and on other articles wanted by the 
colonists.^'' Parliament took away the powers of the New 
York assembly for refusing to quarter British troops. 
The old spirit of the colonies flamed up in opposition. 

In his "Letters of a Farmer" 
John Dickinson of Pennsylvania 
declared that * 'we cannot be 
free without being secure in our 
property." Samuel Adams, the 
"firebrand of the Revolution," 
sent out a ringing "circular 
letter" to all the other colonies. 
He called on them to unite 
against the new taxes. The king 
ordered Massachusetts to recall 
the circular letter and the other 
colonies to treat it with con- 
tempt. Not a single colony 
obeyed the king.^^ Two regiments of soldiers were 
ordered to Boston to enforce the Townshend Acts. 




SAMUEL ADA*MS 



REASONS FOR THE REVOLUTION 



115 




185. Outbreaks in the colonies. In New York the 
king's soldiers and the Sons of Liberty had a skirmish 
called the Battle of Golden 
Hill. In Boston (1770) 
several citizens were shot 
by soldiers. This is known 
as the Boston Massacre. 
In Rhode Island the people 
seized and burned the 
king's vessel, the "Gaspee." 
These events stirred the 
people. 

186. The committees of 
secret correspondence. 
George III had found a 
man, Lord North, who 
managed Parliament and 
did his bidding. North 
repealed all taxes but the small one of three pence per 
pound on tea. Still the merchants held to their "boy- 
cott" against English goods, but the tea ships were 
coming to America anyway. 

To keep the patriots posted, on motion of Samuel 
Adams, committees were appointed in the towns of 
Massachusetts to correspond with each other (1772). In 
a short time Paul Revere was carrying the news from 
Boston to the other towns. In Virginia the burgesses 
named a committee to carry on a like work with all the 
assemblies on the continent (1773). 

187. The Boston Tea Party. Events were moving 
rapidly. The committees had been formed none too 
soon. Tea ships were on their way to the colonies. In 
Boston the ships refused to take the tea back to England. 



FREDERICK, LORD NORTH, EARL 
OF GUILFORD 



ii6 



UNION AMONG THE COLONIES 




THE BOSTON TEA PARTY ABOARD THE SHIP 
IN THE HARBOR 



Seven thousand people met at the call of the committee. 
They overflowed the Old South Meeting House to 

hear speeches by 
Samuel Adams 
and by other 
patriots. Candles 
were brought in, 
and finally word 
came that the 
governor had 
refused to per- 
mit the ships to 
go back. Just 
as the meeting 
was dismissed, 
the war whoop 
of the "Mohawks" was heard from the gallery and from 
the streets. The people poured out, rushed to the wharf, 
and saw the "Indians" dump the tea into the harbor. 
The next night Paul Revere started on his first long ride 
to carry the news to New York and Philadelphia. He 
listened to the cheering words as the patriots in these 
old towns resolved to stand by Boston. 

1 88. The Intolerable Acts arouse America. England 
struck back quickly. The Port Bill cut off all trade with 
Boston. Her people suffered, but the other colonies sent 
food, clothing, and money. "Hold on and hold out to 
the last," said one of the many resolute letters to Boston. 
The Regulating Acf^^ changed the Massachusetts' 
charter (§78). The governor was given the power to 
appoint and pay the leading officers in the colony. A 
third act was intended to make officers more fearless in 
doing their duty by providing that they be sent out of the 



REASONS FOR THE REVOLUTION 



117 



jv*,-X 



colony for trial for murder. A later act gave Quebec 
all the territory down to the Ohio River. This cut off 
the natural growth of the thirteen colonies. 

General Gage, with four regiments, was ordered to 
enforce these acts and was told to arrest Samuel Adams 
and John Hancock (§193). 

189. The First Continental Congress (1774). With 
the courageous words of Washington, "I will raise 1,000 
men, subsist them at my own expense, and march myself 
at their head for the relief of Boston," still ringing 
in people's ears. Congress ! 

met in Carpenters' Hall, I ,, 

Philadelphia. It was a f"^'^ 

noble band of patriots, , It 

fift3^-five in number. 
All knew Washington 
through his deeds in the 
late war (§§168, 171). 
Samuel Adams and 
Richard Henry Lee, two 
firebrands of the Revolu- 
tion, met for the first 
time. 

Here, too, met the two 
greatest orators of the 
Revolution, Patrick 
Henry and John Adams. 
Gentle John Dickinson, 
author of "Letters of a 
Farmer' ' ( § 1 84) and Roger 
Sherman, who rose from 
the shoemaker's bench to be a judge, were of that band. 
New York sent her merchant prince, Philip Livingston, 




CARPENTERS HALL 



UNION AMONG THE COLONIES 




and John Jay, a Huguenot and a man learned in the law. 
From South CaroHna came John Rutledge, a famous 
lawyer, and Christopher Gadsden, a scholar and a patriot. 

190. The work of Congress. Union against the Tory 

king and Par- 
liament was 
the highest sen- 
timent of Con- 
gress. And yet 
its members 
sent appeals to 
king and Par- 
liament. Their 
most impor- 
tant paper was 
a Declaration 
of Rights 

(§156).'''' They again declared that the Americans were 
Englishmen (§182); that they could not be taxed except 
by their own assemblies, but that Americans would sub- 
mit to all laws for the raising of money to regulate the 
trade of the whole empire. 

Congress took a mighty step forward when it adopted 
the non-importation agreement for the country. It left 
to the committees of correspondence the duty of carrying 
out this act (§186). This has been pointed to as the 
birth of the American Union. Congress finally agreed to 
stand by Boston and meet force with force if necessary. 

191. Chatham talks with Franklin. The king and his 
party were more determined than ever when they got 
word from this Congress. But the friends of America 
were more awake than ever. William Pitt, now Earl of 
Chatham, the old friend of the colonies, sent for Franklin.^'* 



Wm/mffiM/fl'" 

THE FIRST PRAYER IN CONGRESS 



THE AMERICANS BEGIN TO FIGHT iig 

They talked over the situation in America, and no doubt 
FrankHn gave him the papers issued by Congress. 

• Chatham introduced a bill to recall the troops from 
Boston and made a powerful speech in its favor, but it 
was defeated. He immediately introduced his plan of 
conciliation. It took into account the ten years in the 
growth of union between the colonies. It repealed 
every act of taxation opposed by the Americans, but it 
recognized the right of Parliament to pass laws for the 
whole empire. 

192. Burke's efforts. Burke, the greatest statesman 
of his time, was a friend of the colonies and had been the 
agent in England of the colony of New York. He proba- 
bly knew more about conditions in America than did any 
other Englishman. He had denounced the Stamp Act 
and now spoke with equal force against the taxation of 
the Americans. His most eloquent plea in the House of 
Commons was his speech on conciliation. 

But his efforts, like Chatham's, were voted down by 
the Tory party. Lord North brought in a plan which 
Parliament approved. It proposed to take up the case 
of each colony by itself, thus ignoring the union that 
had grown up. Lord North was too late with his plan. 
The colonies were' ready to fight. 

THE AMERICANS BEGIN TO FIGHT 

193. Lexington and Concord (April 19, 1775). General 
Gage was in a tight place. If he did nothing, the Tories 
in England and America would blame him. If he acted, 
the Whigs here and at home would denounce him. He 
secretly sent a force to destroy some military stores at 
Concord, eighteen miles from Boston, and to capture 
Samuel Adams and John Hancock (§188). 



120 UNION AMONG THE COLONIES 

Paul Revere was on the watch (§i86). The British 
were scarcely over the river before Revere was riding hard 
to alarm the people with the cry: "The regulars are 
coming!" Fifty minutemen'^^ stood on the village green 
at Lexington when Major Pitcairn, at the head of his 
troops, cried: "Disperse, ye rebels!" Shots were fired 
and ten Americans fell. 

The British pushed on to Concord, where more minute- 
men had collected. There they destroyed some military 




RETREAT OF THE BRITISH REGULARS TO BOSTON 

stores. At the North Bridge a battle took place, and the 
British turned back toward Lexington. The Americans 
poured in a hot fire from behind houses, fences, and 
trees. Reenforcements came to the British, but they only 
.made more marks for the minutemen. The Americans 
chased the British right under the muzzle of the cannon 
in Boston harbor. The British lost almost three times 
as many men as the Americans. 

The news stirred England. To think that American 
farmers had beaten the British regulars! The news flew 



THE AMERICANS BEGIN TO FIGHT 




A BRITISH REGULAR 



to distant parts of the colonies, and 

everywhere it was met by preparations 

for war. It reached Europe and 

raised up friends for Hberty.'''' 

194. Americans still loyal to Britain. 

Just before leaving England Franklin 

said to Chatham: "I never heard 

from any person the least expression 

of a wish for separation." Thomas 

Jefferson declared : ' ' There is not in 

the British Empire a man who more 

cordially loves a union with Great 

Britain than I do." Washington also 

said that "no such thing as inde- 
pendence is desired by any thinking 

man in America" (1774). These sentiments did not 

mean that Americans would not fight for their rights as 

Englishmen. Englishmen at home had often fought for 
the same rights (§156). 

195. The siege of Boston. Battle 
of Bunker Hill. In a few days Boston 
was surrounded by the minutemen 
of New England. Colonel Prescott, 
leading a thousand men, fortified 
Breed's Hill. They were reenforced 
by those brave souls,' Putnam, Stark, 
and Warren. 

Gage sent Howe with three thousand 
men to storm the fort (June 17). The 
British marched up the slope in solid 
column, flags flying and drums beat- 
ing. ' ' Don't fire, ' ' said Prescott, ' ' till 
you see the whites of their eyes." 




r^'-;r- 



A MINUTEMAN 



UNION AMONG THE COLONIES 



Twice the British were beaten back by the deadly fire of 
the Americans, but with true EngHsh pluck they made 




,\ ^ly I /,^^^^ ^tiilo Willi 



l^STl 




THE BATTLE GROUND OF THE MINUTEMEN 



a third trial. The minutemen's ammunition was gone and 
they retreated, fighting stubbornly with clubbed rifles. 

The loss to the British was 1,054, more than one-third 
of the attacking force. The Americans lost 449.^^ The 
colonies hailed Bunker Hill as a victory. 

196. Washington takes command. Massachusetts, a 
Puritan colony, and Virginia, the colony of the Cavaliers, 
were ringleaders in the war. Hancock was made presi- 
dent of the Continental Congress and Washington the 
commander-in-chief of the American armies. 

As Washington started for Boston congressmen and 
citizens rode out with him. The trip was scarcely begun 
when they heard the news from Bunker Hill. When 
Washington heard how the minutemen had fought he 
declared : ' 'The liberties of the country are safe. ' ' In New 
York Washington promised to work for the restoration of 
good feeling. He received a rousing welcome from the 
boys at Yale College. On July 3, he took command of the 



THE AMERICANS BEGIN TO FIGHT 



123 



army at Cambridge and went to work to make a real 
army out of these men. Congress ordered men from as 
far south as Virginia*^^ to make the army a continental one. 

197. The Americans fail at Quebec and succeed at 
Boston. Many people hoped that Canada would join 
the colonies. But in an expedition against Quebec 
Montgomery was killed, Arnold wounded, and Morgan 
captured. The soldiers suffered untold hardships. 

Washington had wanted to strike a blow, but ammuni- 
tion was scarce. Ethan Allen captured Ticonderoga and 
sent its cannon and powder to Boston. One night in 
the midst of a terrific cannonade, two thousand Ameri- 
cans occupied and began to fortify Dorchester Heights. 
Howe (§195) remembered Bunker Hill and decided not 
to attack. He put his soldiers and a thousand Tory 
citizens on board his ships and sailed away for Halifax. 



^,^ y^^^, Winn 'f'^^gggm^^^^^ .^. 




A COLLEGE WELCOME Al YALE 



New England was now free. A little later the British 
gained a foothold at Newport, Rhode Island. 



124 UNION AMONG THE COLONIES 

SUGGESTED READINGS 

References for teachers: Parkman, Pioneers of France, 46-324; 
Cooke, Stories of the Old Dominion, 94-139, 163-218; Fiske, American 
Revolution, I, 14-127; Sloane, French War and the Revolution, 116-202; 
Tyler, Patrick Henry ("American Statesmen Series"), 28-129; Hosmer, 
Samuel Adams ("American Statesmen Series"), 21-23, 243-256; 
Lodge, Story of the Revolution, I, 25-136; Bassett, Short History, chaps, 
viii-ix; Hart, Contemporaries, I, 381-433; II, 546-565; Hart, Source 
Book, 14-17, 96-98, 103-107. 

References for pupils: Mace, Primary History, 116-138, 141-185; 
Mace, George Washington, 1-102; Thwaites, Colonies, 246-257; Hart, 
Formation of the Union, 44-74; Hawthorne, Grandfather's Chair, 140- 
169, 186-250; Coffin, Boys of '76, 17-90; McMurry, Pioneers of the 
Mississippi Valley, 1-48; Hart, Source Readers, II, 122-266. 

Fiction: Cathervvood, Story of Tonty; Henty, With Wolfe in 
Canada; Monroe, At War With Pontiac; Seawell, A Virginia Cavalier; 
Longfellow, Evangeline; Holmes, Ballad of the Boston Tea Party, 
Grandmother's Story; Longfellow, Paul Revere's Ride; Cooper, Sir 
Lionell Lincoln; Bryant, Green Mountain Boys, Seventy-Six. 

PROBLEMS AND PROJECTS 

I. Write an essay about the Indians at the Albany Congress; 
another on Benjamin Franklin. 2. Visit Washington's home and 
tell what you hear about him. 3. You are a banished Acadian. Write 
a letter to an English officer in your old home. 4. Imagine yourself 
an English traveler in the colonies at the time of the Boston Tea Party 
and write a number of letters to England. 5. Get permission to go 
with Paul Revere on his first ride. Report what you saw and heard 
for a New York paper. 6. Write the history of William Pitt and the 
English Whigs in their efforts to prevent the war. 



CHAPTER IX 
THE STRUGGLE FOR THE RIGHTS OF MAN 

THE MOVEMENT TOWARD INDEPENDENCE 

198. The king a cause of separation. The king had 
stubbornly refused all offers of conciliation both by' 
England and by America. But Congress sent him one 
more petition, the "Olive Branch," it was called. George 
III scorned it, declared the Americans rebels, and hired 
Hessians from Hesse in Germany to fight them.*^^ 

Many of the young men of England had refused to 
join the king's army to fight their brethren in America. 
Some of the king's officers had resigned, although they 
gave up life positions. But the king was determined. 
His conduct drove thousands of Americans to resolve that 
if they must fight it were better to fight for the rights 
of man. 

199. Public opinion divided. The great majority of 
Americans had favored fighting for the rights of Englishmen. 
But when they saw their houses burned and their fathers 
and sons slain, many of the bolder ones demanded separa- 
tion. The more conservative ones 'drew back from this 
step and began to side with the king. They could not 
think of giving up their friends in England and of break- 
ing every tie that bound them to the mother country. 
Such people lived in every colony. They were among 
the richest and most highly educated citizens. They 
were called Tories. 

200. Steps toward independence. Just after the battle 
of Lexington, Mecklenburg County, North Carolina, 
threw off the king's authority.^*' Thomas Paine struck a 

125 



126 THE STRUGGLE FOR THE RIGHTS OF MAN 



telling blow in his pamphlet, "Common Sense": "The 
appeal was the King's .... If you say you can pass 
the violations over, then I ask, hath your house been 
burnt? Have you lost a parent or child by their hand?" 
In the spring (1776) the people everywhere were debat- 
ing the question of independence. Virginia, holding a 
great convention, gave her delegates in Congress orders 
to introduce a resolution favoring independence. 




SIGNING THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE 

201. The Declaration of Independence. Richard 
Henry Lee (§189), obeying the orders from Virginia, 
introduced in Congress the resolution asserting that 
"these United Colonies are and of right ought to be free 
and independent states." 

Congress appointed Jefferson, John Adams, Franklin, 
Sherman, and Robert R. Livingston a committee to draw 
up a declaration. Jefferson was its author. He pro- 
duced a document that ranks with Magna Charta (§156). 
It contains the rights of man, the causes of the 



THE MOVEMENT TOWARD INDEPENDENCE 127 

separation, and the declaration that all political connection 
with Great Britain is, and ought to be totally dissolved. 
"In support of this Declaration, with a firm reliance on 
Divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other our 
lives, our fortunes, and our sacred honor" (see Appendix). 

202. How it was received. On July 4 Congress 
adopted the Declaration and sent it forth. The patriots 
hailed it with delight. The army received it with cheers 
and the firing of cannon. It was sent to England and 
published on the Continent in different European 
languages. 

All the great nations were ruled by kings and emperors. 
Not many people in Europe believed that a republic 
could live. No one could accept the teachings of the 
Declaration of Independence and still believe in kings and 
emperors. The majority of Europeans looked upon the 
patriots as foolhardy and bound to be hanged as rebels. 

203. What the Tories thought. The Tories did not 
want a republic. They looked upon the patriots as a 
low class determined to run the country. The Tories 
feared for their property (§199) and threw in their lot 
with the king. Thousands of them joined the king's 
forces. Probably they included one-third of the people 
in the colonies. The Continental Congress ordered all 
arms to be taken from them. Hundreds were driven to 
Canada and to other countries. ^^ Some went back to 
England to live. The Tories made the war longer and 
more bitter. The Quakers were opposed to war for 
religious reasons (§101). 

204. What the Declaration meant in the war. When 
the Declaration was made the Americans changed their 
purpose in the war: now it was a struggle for the rights 
of man. Every patriot could have said to Great Britain: 



12? 



THE STRUGGLE FOR THE RIGHTS OF MAN 



"We are sorry to part from you, but your king^- and your 
Parliament have driven us to this course by taxing us with- 
out our consent, by changing our charters ( § 1 88) , by closing 
our ports, by hiring Hessians to kill us, and by refusing 
to listen to our last appeal (§198) Our 
struggle from now on is for an indepen- 
dent nation." 

THE BRITISH TRY TO BREAK THE POWER 

OF THE MIDDLE STATFS 

205. Battle of Brooklyn Heights. 
Retreat up the Hudson. Washmgton 
set out from Boston to go to New 
York. Howe^Manded his army 
Long Island and defeated 
Americans. Washington wit] 
drew to New York and 
retired up the Hudson, 
since Howe's men out- 
numbered his almost 
two to one. But the 
Americans checked 



THE MILITARY MOVE- 
MENTS IN THE MIDDLE 
COLONIES, I776-7S 




Howe for a short time in the battles of Harlem Heights 
and of White Plains, then took a strong position nearby. 



THE BRITISH IN THE MIDDLE STATES 



i2g 



206. Dark days of the war. Washington saw that the 
British were aiming to capture the "rebel capital," 




WASHINGTON AND HIS TROOPS CROSSING THE DELAWARE 

Philadelphia. He threw his army across the Hudson, 
retreated through Newark and other New Jersey towns, 
and then crossed the Delaware. Congress took flight 
to Baltimore, and Philadelphia began to hide its gold 
and silver. The people began to lose hope, soldiers in 
large numbers left the army, and the British generals 
thought that the war was over. The people did not 
yet know Washington. 

207. Victories at Trenton and Princeton. General 
Cornwallis left his troops in Trenton while he spent 
Christmas in New York. Washington saw his chance. 
The Hessians had been drinking all day. The weather 
was biting cold, and snow was falling fast. "Surely," 
thought the half- tipsy Hessians, "there is no need to 
watch tonight." But Washington and his men had 
crossed the Delaware amid floating ice. They were 



13° THE STRUGGLE FOR THE RIGHTS OP MAN 




WASHINGTON LEADS AGAINST BRITISH LINES 
AT PRINCETON 



pressing toward Trenton. Their feet left bloodstains on 
the snow. The sleepy Hessians were aroused at daybreak. 

A few shots, a 
wild charge, 
and all was 
over! One 
thousand 
Hessians sur- 
rendered. It 
was a famous 
victory. 

Congress 
could not pay 
Washington's 

men. Their families at home were suffering. Washington 
appealed to his friend Robert Morris,^'* of Philadelphia. 
He obtained the money needed, and the Americans were 
ready to fight again. 

Washington had posted his men behind a little river 
as Cornwallis was rushing back from New York to attack. 
"We will bag the old fox in the morning," said the British 
general. Washington left his fires burning brightly to 
deceive the British, and in the morning he was thundering 
at Cornwallis' rear guard at Princeton (January 3, 1777).^^ 
208. Effects on Washington. He was now named the 
"American Fabius," after a famous Roman general who 
retreated to save his army and fought when he could win 
a victory. Both in Europe and in America men now saw 
that England had a gigantic task to defeat Washington. 
Congress gave him power to raise troops to serve for the 
war. Lafayette and De Kalb, with other French officers, 
came to join his army. Pulaski and Kosciusco, brave 
Poles, had already arrived. 



THE BRITISH IN THE MIDDLE STATEvS 



131 



209. The battle of Brandywine and the winter at 
Valley Forge. Would Howe go up the Hudson to meet 
Burgoyne, or would he try for Philadelphia once 
more? Howe sailed for the head of the Chesapeake, and 
Washington hastened to throw his troops between the 
British and Philadelphia. Washington was beaten in 
the two battles of Brandywine and Germantown. 

He took post at Valley Forge, where his men suffered 
terribly from hunger and cold. Lafayette said that ' ' they 
had neither coats, hats, shirts, nor shoes; their feet and 
legs froze black." The British, on the other hand, were 
feasting and drinking in 
Philadelphia and New 
York and "living off the 
fat of the land." 

There were two bright 
spots at Valley Forge: 
one was the presence of 
Mrs. Washington and 
other ladies who came to 
cheer the men ; the other 
was the constant drilling 
which Baron Steuben 
gave the army. 

210. Burgoyne's cam- 
paign (1777). While 
Howe was on his way to 
Philadelphia, Burgoyne 
was coming with eight 
thousand men from 
Canada toward Albany. 
St. Leger was sent up the St. Lawrence to cross over to Fort 
Stanwix,^'' come down the Mohawk, and join Burgoyne. 




burgoyne's campaign 



132 THE STRUGGLE FOR THE RIGHTS OF MAN 

The British captured Ticonderoga but got tangled up in 
the deep woods where the brave General Schuyler had 
cut great trees across the roads and broken down bridges. 
When Burgoyne reached Fort Edward his men were hun- 
gry. He sent a thousand Hessians to Bennington to get 
supplies. But General Stark and his minutemen cap- 
tured the whole lot near Bennington. General Herkimer 
with his riflemen routed St. Leger and his Indians in the 
terrible battle of Oriskany. 

211. Burgoyne forced to surrender. Kosciusco (§208) 
had fortified Bemis Heights, and Washington had sent 
Arnold and Morgan to help Schuyler. Just as victory 
was within Schuyler's grasp Congress sent the incompe- 
tent Gates to take command. Two terrific battles were 
fought at Freeman's farm." Burgoyne's supplies were 
now cut off, and he surrendered his army at Saratoga 
October 17, 1777. 

HOW FRANCE CAME TO OUR AID 

212. Immediate effects of Burgoyne's surrender. The 

Americans were happy over the victory. Many of them 
thought Gates was a greater general than Washington. 
The Conway CabaP^ was hatched while Washington's army 
was suffering at Valley Forge. This was a miserable plot 
to displace Washington, but it came to nothing. 

The destruction of Burgoyne's army was the turning 
point in the war because it brought France to our aid. 

213. Early relations with France. Frenchmen had 
long been finding fault with their kings. Those who did 
not think much about the way they were ruled rejoiced 
when England and the colonies began to -quarrel. 

Among the French were great writers who sympathized 
with the Whigs of England and the Whigs m America. 



HOW FRANCE CAME TO OUR AID 



^33 



The king of France was opposed to "helping rebels," he 
said, but he burned to have revenge for the Seven Years' 
War (§175). At the time of the passage of the Stamp 
Act he sent Baron de Kalb to spy out America, talk 
with the colonists, and report to him. De Kalb told the 
truth when he said that the colonies were very loyal to 
England. 

214. Franklin in France. Another agent was sent by 
the French king. He told the men of the Congress (1775) 
that France would send engineers, arms, and ammunition. 
Just before the Declaration of Independence was 
signed Vergennes, acting for his king, sent $1,000,000 
to Congress. Franklin now went to France. No other 
American had ever been so popular in Paris. He was 
already known by his quaint sayings in Poor RicJiard's 
Almanac, by his discovery that lightning and electricity 
are the same thing, and by 
the high position he had 
held in London. His learn- 
ing attracted the attention 
of educated people, and his 
simple manners and plain 
dress made him the idol of 
the common people of 
France. The French called 
the American soldiers 
"Franklin's troops." 

The work of Franklin soon 
began to show : France gave 
$400,000 per year to be paid 
back after independence had 
been won, three ships laden with war supplies, and the 
right for Americans to fit out privateers in French ports 




BENJAMIN FRANKLIN 



134 



THE STRUGGLE FOR THE RIGHTS OF MAN 




JEAN PAUL LAFAYETTE 



and to bring captured ships into these ports to sell them. 
The king would not do these things openly, for England 

was watching. 

215. Sentiment in favor of 
America grows. Franklin 
helped turn public sentiment 
in favor of America. The 
nobles were pressing for open 
support of America, but the 
king held back because he did 
not like to set a bad example 
before his own people. He 
already saw the growth of 
ideas among Frenchmen that 
might endanger his own 
crown some day."^ He did 
not like to hear Franklin 
praised. He commanded Lafayette not to go to America, 
but the king's wife bade him go. The merchants and 
farmers liked the Americans because there were neither 
kings nor nobles in that country. 

216. The French alliance (1778). When the news 
reached France that Burgoyne had surrendered his whole 
army, the people were wild with joy. The king now saw 
that America would succeed and felt that France must 
reap some benefit from her success. The two nations 
formed an alliance. 

• France recognized the independence of the United 
States, and both nations promised to continue the war 
until England also recognized our independence. 
This was the real turning point of the war. It brought 
to our aid a great, powerful nation with ships, supplies, 
soldiers, and money. It is difficult to see how America 



HOW FRANCE CAME TO OUR AID 



^3S 



could have won her independence without the help of 
France. 

217. England alarmed. The news of Burgoyne's sur- 
render stirred England to the center, but the French alli- 
ance excited her even more. Lord North begged the 
king to permit him to resign and to call Lord Chatham 
to the head of the government, but George III was too 
stubborn. The Rockingham Whigs were in favor of 
granting independence to America, and a motion was 
made to that effect (§183). If the king had been wilHng, 
Chatham would have repealed all taxes and have 
taken every British soldier out of America. As much as 
Americans loved him, it is doubtful if Chatham could 
have persuaded them to throw overboard their new ally. 

218. Other nations enter the war. Spain, too, hesitated 
about setting a bad example before the common man, 
but in 1 7 78 she 
joined the French. 
The French and 
the Spanish fleets 
together were 
larger than the 
English, and 
England was kept 
busy defending 
Gibraltar and her 
colonies in the 
East and West 
Indies. 

219. British 
leavePhiladelphia 
(1778). When the British army heard that a great French 
fleet was on its way to America, it left Philadelphia (§209) 




THE CAMPAIGNS AROUND PHILADELPHIA 



136 



THE vSTRUGGLE FOR THE RIGHTS OF MAN 



for New York in hot haste. Washington was hard on 
its heels and attacked it at Monmouth. He handled 

the British so roughly that 
they left for New York 
that night. ^" The cam- 
paign for the middle states 
had ended where it began, 
but with tables completely 
turned. Then the British 
had chased Washington 
out of New York ; and now 
he was chasing them into 
New York. 

220. The American navy 
(1775-81). The navy of 
Great Britain was the 
most powerful in the 
world. When the war 
broke out the colonies had 
no navy. They began to arm small vessels and send 
them but as privateers. These scoured the seas and 
captured so many British merchant ships that insurance 
rates for the latter became very high. 

That great sea captain John Barry, an Irishman, came 
to high command by fighting on privateers. So did Paul 
Jones, a Scotchman. 

221. France fits Paul Jones for a great sea victory 
(1779). The biggest victory at sea in the Revolution 
was won by Paul Jones. He had already won the name 
of "pirate" by attacking British shipping. Franldin 
obtained a small fleet for him. His biggest vessel was the 
"Bon Homme Richard." ^^ Jones met the EngHsh ship 
"Serapis" and fought far into the night. He tied the 




JOHN PAUL JONES 



IRREGULAR WARFARE 137 

two ships together. The decks of both were covered with 
the dead and dying. "Have you struck your colors?" 
called out the British captain. "I have not yet begun to 
fight," replied Jones. Both vessels took fire, and the 
British surrendered. The "Bon Homme Richard" sank 
the next day, and Jones sailed into a French port in the 
captured "Serapis." He was received with great joy by 
the French people. 

IRREGULAR WARFARE 

222. WyomingandCherry valleys (1778). Washington 
was watching the British in New York. He was roused 
by the Tories and Indians massacring the people in 
Wyoming and Cherry valleys. Washington ordered 
General Sullivan to take five thousand men and punish 
the enemy. He defeated them completely on the site 
where Elmira now stands. He then laid waste the 
growing crops of the Cayugas and the Senecas. 

223. Plundering by the British. Storming Stony Point 
and Paulus Hook. The British were now desperate. 
They had failed in two campaigns (§§210, 219) and had 
seen France come into the war (§216). They turned to 
robbing and burning towns in New England, New Jersey, 
and Virginia, as if to get even. 

The British had captured Stony Point on the Hudson. 
Washington selected "Mad Anthony" Wayne to recap- 
ture it. Wayne, trained by Steuben (§209), took twelve 
hundred picked men and with empty guns and fixed 
bayonets charged up the steep slope of Stony Point. He 
won (1779). 

Paulus Hook, a part of Jersey City, had been fortified 
by the British. Henry Lee, "Light Horse Harry," 
led three hundred picked men at night and captured it. 



I3S 



THE STRUGGLE FOR THE RIGHTS OF MAN 



224. Benedict Arnold again. Washington had stood 
by Arnold (§197) because he was a brave soldier, but 








THE STORMING OF PAULUS HOOK 



Congress refused to promote him. This angered Arnold, 
and he burned for revenge. Washington gave him com- 
mand at West Point, but Arnold agreed to turn the 
position over to the British. Only the arrest of Major 
Andre, who had been sent to meet Arnold, saved 
West Point. Andre was hanged. Arnold escaped to 
the British where he was given his reward, a command 
in the British army. 

THE WAR IN THE WEST AND SOUTH 

225. The Revolution west of the AUeghenies. The 

Kentucky country belonged to Virginia (§167). Daniel 
Boone lived in North Carolina, but he went to Ken- 
tucky (1769) by way of Cumberland Gap (§27), where 
three states now meet. Harrodsburg (1774) and Boones- 
boro (1775) were established. 



THE WAR IN THE WEST AND SOUTH 



139 



Tennessee, a part of North Carolina, was settled by 
James Robertson at Watauga (1770). Later a fort was 
built on the Nollichucky by the Indian fighter, John 
Sevier. The men of both regions organized as militia and 
were ready to fight the Indians, allies of Great Britain. 

226. George Rogers Clark and our western boundary. 
Clark had been in Kentucky and had seen the dangers 
from the Indians. He resolved to capture the British 
posts northwest of the Ohio and put an end to these 
dangers. Governor Henry of Virginia supported his plan 
with money and good wishes. With about one hundred 
and fifty men Clark left Pittsburgh (May, 1778), halted 
on an island near Louisville, and then rowed down the 




THE GEORGE ROGERS CLARK EXPEDITION 



Ohio to the Tennessee. The men hid their boats, marched 
across the country, and captured Kaskaskia and Cahokia. 



I40 THE STRUGGLE FOR THE RIGHTS OF MAN 

Clark made friends with the French and the Spaniards. 
Hamilton, the British commander in Detroit, came with 
five hundred men to reenforce Vincennes. Without wait- 
ing, Clark dashed across country in the winter. His men 
suffered terribly, since they marched for miles and miles 
through water. Hamilton was completely surprised by 
the assault on the fort and surrendered Vincennes after 
a short fight. The power of the British in the West 
was gone. 

227. The British overrun the far South. Defeated in 
the North, the British determined to get a foothold in 
the South. They captured Savannah ^^ and other towns 
(1778) and restored British authority. In the summer 
of 1779 a French fleet joined with General Lincoln 
in attacking the .British, but they were defeated. 
Earlier a British fleet had been roughly handled at 







'^f-O"-^ 



f" 



¥/r 



2 .«^,-r^ 




J 'if -^ ^T K^ > 




THE ASSAULT AT THE BATTLE OF SAVANNAH 

Charleston by Moultrie behind his fort of palmetto logs 
(1776). The British now marched overland from Savannah 



THE WAR IN THE WEST AND SOUTH 



141 




CAMPAIGNS IN THE SOUTH DURING THE REVOLUTION 

and captured the city with Lincoln and his army of three 
thousand men. Hundreds of people took the oath to 
support the king, and Clinton left Cornwallis to conquer 
the rest of the state. 

228. A new kind of fighting. Marion, ^^ Sumter, Pickens, 
and Williams now found a way of fighting even more 
puzzling to the British than the work of the minutemen. 



142 



THE STRUGGLE FOR THE RIGHTvS OP MAN 



With only small bands under them, they kept the enemy's 
forces in the Carolinas in constant terror. Armed with 
homemade swords, mounted on the swiftest horses, hiding 
in dense swamps or mountain fastnesses, they seldom 
slept two nights in the same camp. They would destroy 
a Tory camp at night and before daylight would be 
in some distant hiding-place; again they would sweep 
around the main British force, cutting off stragglers or 
charging pell-mell into their camp. But they were up 
and away before the British could recover from their sur- 
prise. In this manner these bold warriors kept alive the 
spirit of resistance. 

229. The battle of Camden (1780). Congress sent 
Gates to redeem the South. De Kalb (§213) was busy 
collecting reenforcements for the Americans. Gates 
joined him, took charge, and met Cornwallis at Camden. 




MARION SURPRISING A BRITISH CAMP 



Gates and the militia fled at the first fire, but De Kalb 
and his Continentals gave the enemy one of Steuben's 



THE WAR IN THE WEST AND SOUTH 



143 



headlong bayonet charges. De Kalb fell mortally 
wounded ^^ Gates by his cowardly act had lost the day. 







' ' lift) S{'''^^' ^"vH^^^^ 






'^^r^i'i^'W, 



DE KAI.B AND THE MARYLAND AND DELAWARE CONTINENTALS AT CAMDEN 

230. The backwoodsmen at King's Mountain (1780). 

Cornwallis was elated. He started for Charlotte, North 
Carolina. From there he sent Major Ferguson with 
twelve hundred men to rouse the Tories. News of this ran 
far and wide. Soon Ferguson found himself surrounded 
on King's Mountain by backwoodsmen from three or four 
states. They charged up the mountain side, killed 
Ferguson, and captured his entire force. The Americans 
lost twenty-eight. The victorious men went to their 
homes, but they had turned the tide in the South. 

231. Greene takes command (1781). Washington 
was happy when General Greene took command in the 
South and Morgan was put at the head of the remnant of 
De Kalb's Continentals. Cornwallis sent his most daring 
officer, Tarleton, to catch Morgan, who had taken post at 
Cowpens. Morgan was too much for Tarleton and 
defeated and captured nearly his whole force.^^ 



144 



THE STRUGGLE FOR THE RIGHTS OF MAN 



Greene was a great "Fabius" (§208). Knowing that 
Cornwallis would be furious, he began a famous retreat 
with CornwalHs after him. Across North CaroHna they 
went and hurried on into Virginia. Greene rested his 
troops and then struck Cornwallis a 
blow at Guilford Courthouse. Greene 
had to retire, but Cornwallis lost so 
heavily that he retreated to Wilmington 
on the coast to get fresh suppHes. 

Greene^^ was free to 
return to South Carolina. 
He fought two drawn 
battles, at Hobkirk's Hill 
and at Eutaw Springs. 
In both cases the 




THE WAR IN VIRGINIA 



British retreated. The only places held by them in the 
South at the end of the war were Charleston and 
Savannah. 

232. Washington sees his opportunity. When Lord 
Cornwallis reached Yorktown from North Carolina, 



THE WAR IN THE WEST AND SOUTH 



145 



word came that a French fleet was bound for Chesapeake 
Bay. Washington immediately decided to rush the 
American and French armies^^ from New York (§219) to 
Yorktown. It was a bold decision. But he was halfway 
to Philadelphia before Clinton saw Washington was not 
planning to attack New York. 

Philadelphia was wild with joy. Men crowded the 
streets cheering madly, and happy women threw flowers 
upon the dusty Continentals and the finely dressed French 
soldiers. "Long live Washington! He's gone to catch 
Cornwallis in his mouse trap!" cried the people. 

233. Yorktown the final victory (1781). From the head 
of the Chesapeake the French fleet under Count de Grasse 
carried the army to Yorktown. For nearly a month the 











CARRYING THE OUTER WORKS AT YORKTOWN 

cannon from fleet and army knocked the British forts to 
pieces. The Americans and French stormed the outer 



146 THE STRUGGLE FOR THE RIGHTS OF MAN 

works. The next night the British tried in vain to break 
out. On the very day that America was celebrating 
the anniversary of Burgoyne's surrender (October 17) 
Cornwallis raised the white flag. Two days later the 
British army, over seven thousand strong, marched out 
between parallel lines of Americans and Frenchmen. 
Washington was at the head of one line, and Count 
Rochambeau at the head of the other. The British 
played the old tune : ' ' The World Turned Upside Down. 

234. What Yorktown meant to America. America 
was wild with enthusiasm as the news spread. The 
Liberty Bell rang a joyous alarm, and soon the streets 
of Philadelphia were alive with people although it was 
two o'clock in the morning. Congress marched to the 
Lutheran church and gave thanks for the victory. On 
every village green in America the people celebrated the 
great event. 

235. What the victory meant to France and England. 
A fast sailing vessel hastened to France. ' Paris was 
happy. Over seven thousand sons of France had joined 
hands with Washington to make victory sure. A thrill of 
hope must have shot through every heart that looked 
for better days in France. 

The Tories of England were discouraged. Lord North 
threw up his hands, crying: "Oh God! It is all over!" 
But stubborn old George III declared that he would rather 
give up his crown and retire to Hanover (§180)*^^ than 
acknowledge American independence. 

The Whig leaders rejoiced. It was a victory for the 
people of Great Britain. Richmond had long hoped for 
such a victory, and Fox clapped his hands with joy. The 
younger Pitt had a few months before denounced the war 
in strong language. Finally George III was compelled 



THE WAR IN THE WEST AND vSOUTH 



147 



to call to power again the Rockingham Whigs, the friends 
of America (§217).'^^ They made peace with America. 

236. The treaty of peace (1783). Congress appointed 
Franklin, John Adams, Jay, and Henry Laurens to go 
to Paris to meet men from France and Great Britain. 
By the treaty (i) America was declared an independent 
nation; (2) the Mississippi was made our western bound- 
ary (§226) and the Great Lakes our northern; (3) and 
east of the Mississippi, Florida was made our southern 
limit (see map for fuller explanation). 

237. Washington retires to Mount Vernon. When the 
British left New York, Washington and his army entered. 
Later he met his generals to say good-by. He said: 
"With a heart full of love and gratitude, I now take leave 
of you. I most devoutly wish that your latter days ma}^ 
be as prosperous and happy as your former ones have 




WASHINGTO.M BIDS FAREWELL TO HIS GENERALS 

been glorious and honorable." He took each general 
by the hand and embraced him. He then went to 



14^ THE STRUGGLE FOR THE RIGHTS OF MAN 

Whitehall Ferry, waved his hat, and bade them a silent 
farewell as he started on his homeward journey. 



•[ 



^9ffP%.r 




r 



f i^ 






MOUNT VERNON, THE HOME OF WASHINGTON 

Washington traveled to Annapolis to meet Congress 
and resign his position. Standing room was all taken, and 
a great crowd looked down from the galleries. Congress 
sat with their hats on (§41). Washington said, "I now 
have the honor .... to surrender into your hands 
[Congress'] the trust committed to me, and to claim the 
indulgence of retiring from the service of my country." 
He refused all pay for his services of eight years, but 
the money of his own which he had spent was repaid.^" 

He and Mrs. Washington hastened to Mount Vernon, 
where a happy scene met their eyes. There, leaning on his 
staff, was old Bishop, the gift of General Braddock. The 
other servants were happy in seeing their "Master" and 
"Mistress" once more. All Christmas afternoon people 
came to pay their "respects and duty." Among them 
were stately dames and gay young ladies. The war was 
over, and Washington gave himself to making Mount 
Vernon more beautiful than before. The next year 
Lafayette came from France to visit him and renew the 
friendship begun on the field of battle. 



WOMAN'S PART IN THE REVOLUTION I49 

WOMAN'S PART IX THE REVOLUTION 

238. What the people did at home. We have thought 
about armies and war so much that home things have been 
forgotten. Everybody felt the pinch of war, especially 
when armies came into their own neighborhoods. Every- 
body, too, had a part in it. Some had to join the army, 
and some had to care for the home folks. Sometimes the 
soldiers had to go home and help gather in the harvests, 
for the armies had to be fed. Clothing had to be made 
for the soldiers. Women had to work at their spinning 
wheels and looms much longer than in times of peace. 
Then, too, they had to help melt the lead to make bullets 
and had to cut gun "wads."^^ 

Then the men had to run their little forges or black- 
smith shops to make the flintlock guns. There were no 
breech-loading guns nor machine guns in that day, only 
those loaded with ramrods. 

There was no Red Cross then with its thousands of 
nurses to care for the soldiers. There were not many 
doctors to look after the sick or the wounded. But the 
war came home to people every time a battle was fought 
and there came a call for bandages and nurses. Some- 
times, too, the soldiers of each army were sent to live 
among the different families of the town or city where 
the army happened to be. 

239. Distinguished women of the Revolution. Women 
took a real part in the struggle. Hundreds of them dis- 
tinguished themselves by doing deeds calling for courage 
and resolution. 

One of the most famous women was Abigail Adams, 
wife of John Adams. She managed their little farm while 
her husband was in Congress or in Europe. Her letters to 
him were full of patriotism, even while the roar of British 



ISO THE STRUGGLE FOR THE RIGHTS OF MAN 

guns sounded in her ears. In writing to him she made an 
appeal to him to have the Continental Congress favor 
woman suffrage. 

Faith Trumbull, wife of the governor of Connecticut, was" 
at church one day. The minister called for a collection 
for the Continental army. She arose beside the governor, 
removed from her shoulders a fine scarlet cloak, the gift 
of a great French general, and laid it on the altar as her 
gift. The donation was large that day! Hundreds of 
meetings of governors, generals, and committees of safety 
were held in her home during the Revolution. 

Have you read the story of how Mrs. Murray played a 
trick upon the British ? They were hot after Washington 
through New York City after the battle of Brooklyn 
Heights. She invited the British generals to tea in 
her splendid home. By the time the tea party was over, 
Washington was out of danger! 

Brave Mollie Pitcher! Her husband loaded a cannon 
at Monmouth (§219). He was killed, and Mollie took his 
place and drove home shot and shell until the British 
retreated. 

Lydia Darrah, a brave Philadelphia Quaker, saved 
Washington's army from a surprise attack and perhaps' 
from capture. At her home one night the British officers 
laid their secret plans. She stole out of bed and overheard 
them. Early next morning she rode to Washington's 
camp at Whitemarsh and told an American officer 
of their plans. Washington and his men were ready ! 

The women of the South were just as brave and did the 
same kind of heroic deeds as did the women of the 
North. Indeed, had it not been for the noble self- 
sacrifice of the women of the Revolution, the war would 
have been much longer and harder to win. 



WOMAN'S PART IN THE REVOLUTION iSi 

SUGGESTED READINGS 

References for teachers: Fiske, American Revolution, I, 191-344; 
II, i-2go; Roosevelt, Winning of the West, II, 1-84; Hart, Formation 
of the Union, 77-89; Lodge, Story of the Revolution, I, 136-278; II, 
1-216; Cooke, Stories of the Old Dominion, 245-256; Sloane, French 
War and the Revolution, 312-347; Morse, Franklin ("American States- 
men Series"), 2-268; Hart, Contemporaries, II, 467-469, 474-476, 
485-678; Bassett, Short History, chap, ix; Van Tyne, American 
Revolution. 

References for pupils: Mace, Primary History, 187-198, 211-219, 
230-239; Mace, Washington, 103-140; Wright, Stories of American 
Progress, 1-40; WiUiams, Stories of Early Neiv York; Blaisdell, Hero 
Stories from American History, 105-122; Beebe, Four American Heroes, 
17-68; Hart, Source Book, 147-149, 1 51-160; Sparks, Men Who Made 
the Nation, chap, i; Baldwin, Conquest of the Old Northwest, 145-178; 
Drake, Th&' Making of the Ohio Valley, 116-121; Coffin, Boys of 'yd; 
Hart, Catnp and Firesides of the Revolution. 

Fiction: Churchill, Richard Carvel; Cooper, The Pilot; Thompson, 
Alice of Old Vinccnnes; Eggleston, A Carolina Cavalier; Bryant, Song 
of Marion's Men; Kennedy, Horseshoe Robinson; Ogden, A Loyal 
Little Redcoat; Mitchell, Hugh Wynne; Ford, Janice Meredith; Henty, 
True to the Old Flag; Cooper, Spy; Parker, Thaddeus of Warsaw; 
Bryant, Green Mountain Boys, The Battle of Bennington. 

PROBLEMS AND- PROJECTS 

I. Write about what France did for America. 2. Imagine yourself 
a member of the Continental Congress and write what you see and 
hear about the Declaration of Independence. Dramatize this event. 

3. Report to your newspaper on the activity of Franklin in France. 

4. You are a spy in Philadelphia (1776-78). Write to Washington 
at Valley Forge what you see and hear. 5. Tell, in a few pages, the 
story of Alice of Old Vinccnnes. 6. Washington is at Mount Vernon 
again. He is happy and receives visitors. Lafayette visits him. 
Dramatize these events. 



CHAPTER X 
THE NEED FOR A STRONGER GOVERNMENT 

AN EXPERIMENT IN STATE SOVEREIGNTY 

240. Making colonies into states. Before the Declara- 
tion of Independence was signed royal governors began to 
run away from the danger they saw coming. Their 
governments fell to pieces, and the people of the colonies 
set up committees of safety. These committees managed 
things until a governor was chosen or until the people had 
elected their assembly. 

The people of New Hampshire acted first (1776). The 
constitution was to be above laws made by the legislature 
and received its authority from the people of the state. 
Massachusetts was the last one of the states to set up a 
constitution (1780). 

The people were not so democratic then as now, for 
only the constitutions of New York and of the New 
England states gave the people the right to vote for gov- 
ernor. Elsewhere he was chosen by the legislatures or 
by a council. The right to vote, too, was generally limited 
to men who paid taxes or held a certain amount of prop- 
erty (§158). In some cases voters still had to meet 
religious tests (§158). 

New Jersey bears the distinction of having given women 
the right to vote. But this privilege was taken away in a 
few years. 

241. Making the states into a confederation. For a 
long time we have seen the colonies growing together 
(§186). Benjamin Franklin thought the time ripe 
for a confederation and introduced a set of articles 

152 




THE UNITED STATES 

at the Close of the 
REVOLUTIONARY WAR 

SCALE OF Miles 



so 100 



Lontritudt IVest 8D /rom Oreenuruh 



Coprrigbt, 1903, bj Buid, UcNftll; ti Comyuf 



AN EXPERIMENT IN STATE vSOVEREIGNTY 153 

(1775). Congress thought it too soon. Richard Henry- 
Lee's jnotion for independence contained a proposition 
for a confederation (§201). But the more Congress dis- 
cussed the question of confederation, the more it dis- 
agreed. On the question of independence the thirteen 
colonies could be one, but on the question of union among 
themselves they were still thirteen! 

Not until Burgoyne's surrender did Congress' agree on 
a plan (November, 1777). According to these Articles of 
Confederation the states were to be in authority above 
Congress. Congress now sent the Articles to the state 
legislatures for adoption. But not until just before the 
Battle of Yorktown did the last legislature ratify the 
Articles of Confederation (1781).^- 

242. The states supreme. The most striking fact 
about this new constitution was its weakness. But the 
people were afraid it was too strong. They had just 
finished a long, hard war with the strong government of 
England, and they did not now propose to set up one 
of the same kind in their own midst. 

The Articles gave Congress only a little power. Con- 
gress could advise the states to raise so many men or so 
much money for Washington's army. The states, being 
supreme, could do as they pleased. By the Confederation 
each state had one vote in Congress. Thus Delaware 
was as important in Congress as Pennsylvania. 

243. Industry and trade grow worse. At the close of 
the war Congress could not pay the army. It had bor- 
rowed money from France and Holland and from its own 
people. But it could not pay back these loans because 
Congress had no power to raise money by taxes. It was 
driven to making millions of paper currency or "con- 
tinental" money. '■'•■' But this was only promises to pay 



154 THE NEED FOR A STRONGER GOVERNMENT 

money. The army in its despair threatened to attack 
Congress, but Washington prevented it. One ,of the 




PAPER MONEY ISSUED BY CONGRESS DURING THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR 

officers proposed that Washington be made king, but he 
indignantly rejected the proposal. 

244. Congress not able to protect our trade at home or 
abroad. Some states taxed goods brought in from other 
states. These states in turn "boycotted" the offend- 
ing states. Men who manufactured goods complained 
because Congress had no power to lay a tariff to protect 
their trade from foreigners. Great Britain put a high 
tariff on American goods and also passed laws shutting 
out our trade from her West India markets. 

Things were going from bad to worse. Several hundred 
soldiers, feeling deeply angered at Congress, marched on 
Philadelphia. Congress ran away to Princeton. In 
Massachusetts the people were resisting the courts 
because creditors were suing debtors for their money. A 
rebellion broke out, led by Daniel Shays (1786). 



EFFORTS FOR A STRONGER GOVERNMENT 



155 



Leading men shook their heads, asking each other, "Will 
the Confederation break up in anarchy ? ' ' 

EFFORTS FOR A STRONGER GOVERNMENT 

245. Men who worked for a better government. The 

great majority of leaders favored a stronger government. 
Among them was Washington. He had not forgotten 
the bitter days of Trenton and Valley Forge! From 
1783 to 1787 he was kept busy writing letters to men 
who wanted his opinions on the Confederation. To 
his own Governor Harrison he wrote: "An extension of 
federal power would make us one of the most wealthy, 
happy, and powerful nations on the globe." To his friend, 
John Jay, he answered: "I do not conceive that we can 
long exist as a nation without 
a power which will pervade 
the whole union." 

AlexanderHamilton, 
though a young man, stood 
next to Washington in argu- 
ing for a new plan of govern- 
ment. He wrote a famous 
letter on the defects of the 
Confederation (1780). He 
also published a paper called 
the Continent all St. In this 
he tried to turn men's minds 
toward a government of 
greater power. 

James Madison, a young 

man of statesmanlike Alexander Hamilton 

notions, worked hard for a better government. Besides 
these, there were many in almost every state in favor 




156 THE NEED FOR A vSTRONGER GOVERNMENT 

of improving the Articles of Confederation. Many things 
were ivorking in the same direction. 

246. Spain tries to close the Mississippi (1786). When 
Louisiana fell to Spain (§176), she controlled the greater 
part of what i^ now the United States. We had for a long 
time claimed the right to use the Mississippi River to the 
Gulf. The Spanish now offered to give our merchants 
trading privileges in Spain and in the West Indies if we 
would give up our right to use the Mississippi. Jefferson 
wrote: "I will venture to say that the act which aban- 
dons the navigation of the Mississippi is an act of separa- 
tion between the eastern and western country." The 
settlers west of the Alleghenies threatened to secede if 
Congress gave away their right to use the Mississippi. 
This situation called for a more powerful government. 

247. Western state lands given to the Confederation. 
Congress delayed long over the question of what to 
do with the western lands. It was a most happy solu- 
tion to give them to the Confederation. All the states 
having claims patriotically gave them up on two condi- 
tions: (i) that the land be disposed of for the common 
benefit; (2) that this region be cut up into "distinct 
republican states." 

Two states kept a portion. Virginia kept Kentucky 
and a region in Ohio to pay her soldiers, and a small tract 
in Indiana, called Clark's Grant, to reward men of the 
Vincennes expedition (§226). Connecticut kept a part 
of Ohio known as the Western Reserve. Congress sur- 
veyed and opened up the rest of this land to the soldiers 
of the Revolution. 

248. The old Northwest Territory. "A region of rich 
soil, great forests, beautiful prairies, splendid lakes and 
rivers, and inhabited by Indians and wild animals from 



EFFORTS FOR A STRONGER GOVERNMENT 



157 



the quail, prairie hen, and wild turkey to the squirrel and 

the buffalo." This region took in the future states of 

Indiana, Illinois, 

Ohio, Michigan, 

Wisconsin, and 

part of Minnesota. 

Settlers poured in 

from the South 

and from New 

England. 

One of the wisest 
and one of the last 
acts of the Con- 
gress of the Con- 
federation was to 
give this region the 
Ordinance of 1 787. 
This contained 
four main provi- 
sions: (i) It laid 
the foundation of 
our government of 
territories. (2) It 
prohibited negro 
slavery. (3) It 
gave religious free- 
dom to all settlers. 
(4) It declared in 
favor of encourag- 
ing forever the means of education. Every state now 
had a strong bond tying it to the Union. 

249. Commerce leads the way to constitutional conven- 
tions. After meeting with Washington (1785) to talk 




THE NORTHWEST TERRITORY 



158 THE NEED FOR A STRONGER GOVERNMENT 

over trade, delegates from Maryland and Virginia decided 
to call a great trade convention at Annapolis (1786). 
Only five states sent delegates to this meeting, but 
among those present were Madison, Hamilton, and 
Dickinson. These men sent out a call for a convention 
to revise the Articles of Confederation. 

Congress hesitated to act, but when the news of Shays' 
rebellion came, it joined in the call. Washington had 
held back at first, but now the crisis had come, and he 
decided to go.^'' All the states but Rhode Island sent 
delegates to this convention. 

THE CONSTITUTIONAL CONVENTION 

250. The great men of the Convention. Fifty-five men 
took part in making the Constitution. These men were 
well fitted to do their work. Twenty-nine were col- 
lege graduates, and many had served in Congress, in 
the army, or abroad. The four master-minds of the 
Convention were Washington, Franklin, Hamilton, and 
Madison. '^'^ Washington was chosen president. 

■ Other men already famous were John Dickinson (§184) ; 
William Paterson, author of the New Jersey plan ; Roger 
Sherman and Ellsworth of Connecticut; Gouverneur 
Morris and James Wilson of Pennsylvania; Mason and 
Randolph of Virginia; Davis of North Carolina; and the 
Pinckneys and John Rutledge of South Carolina. 

251. Disobeying orders. Most of the states had com- 
manded their delegates to revise the Articles. But the 
Convention went to work on a new plan worked out by 
Madison. It favored the large states. It made the num- 
ber of representatives and senators from each state depend 
upon its population. The small states were soon up in 
arms. They still wanted equal representation in Congress 



THE CONvSTITUTIONAL CONVENTION iS9 

(§242). They favored the New Jersey plan, which only 
amended the Confederation. 

Disputes arose, and Washington asked: "If to please 
the people we offer what we ourselves disapprove, how can 
we afterwards defend our work ? ' ' Franklin declared that 
he had lived long enough to know that "God governs 
in the affairs of men," and that they "had come together 
to consult and not to contend." In the meantime the 
delegates from Connecticut brought in a compromise 
providing that all the states be equal in one house, the 
Senate, and that in the other house, they should be repre- 
sented according to population. This arrangement pleased 
the small states and was adopted. 

252. Other compromises. A contest arose between the 
slave and the free states over representation and direct 
taxation. The Convention decided to add three-fifths 
of the slaves to the whites in any state to fix the number 
of representatives it should have and the amount of direct 
taxes it should pay. 

A third dispute arose over commerce. The northern 
states wanted commerce regulated by a majority vote 
of Congress. But the southern states were afraid that 
laws would be made against their export trade (§142). 
It was finally agreed that Congress must not tax exports, 
but should control both our foreign and home trade by a 
simple majority. The foreign slave trade was permitted 
to go on for twenty years longer. 

253. A bundle of compromises. Some one has declared 
the Constitution to be a "bundle of compromises." We 
have seen the Convention compromising between the large 
and small states, the free and slave states, the com- 
mercial and farming states. There were many other 
compromises, such as between those wanting the people 



i6o THE NEED FOR A STRONGER GOVERNMENT 



to vote directly and others who wanted the people to 
vote only indirectly. Only in the case of representatives 
N^ were the people to vote 

directly. Senators were 
not to be voted for directly, 
but were to be elected by 
their own state legislatures. 
The presidents were to be 
voted for indirectly, and the 
judges of the Federal courts 
were to be appointed by the 
president. 

254. The last days of the 
Convention. Gouverneur 
Morris could write plain, 
strong English. To him, 
therefore, was given the 
task of writing the Con- 
stitution in its final form. 
Only thirty-nine members signed it. A few had gone home 
angry while others refused to sign for various reasons. 

On the last day Franklin, looking at Washington's 
chair on which were painted the bright rays of a half- 
sun, said: "I have often, in the course of the session, 
looked at that sun without being able to tell whether 
it is rising or setting. Now I know it is a rising and 
not a setting sun." 

THE STATES RATIFY THE CONSTITUTION 

255. Why some great men opposed the Constitution.^*' 

The Convention sat with closed doors, and the people 
did not know exactly what kind of a government had 
been made. Some feared that too much power had been 




GOUVERNEUR MORRIS 



THE STATES RATIFY THE CONSTITUTION 



given to the nation and that the states would lose their 
importance. Would not the president become a king? 
At least there was no Bill of Rights in the Constitution 
(§156). 

256. How the states voted. The states elected dele- 
gates to state conventions which were to accept or reject 
the Constitution. There w^ere many hot debates in these 
conventions. Delaware won the double honor of not only 
being the first to ratify, but of doing it unanimously. 
Both New Jersey and Georgia came under the "New 
Roof," as the Constitution was called, by a unanimous 
vote.^^ But the friends of the new government had hard 
fighting to get it ratified in Massachusetts, Virginia, 
and New York. North ^ ,— _ 

Carolina and Rhode :'A 

Island did not ratify 
until after the elec- 
tion of Washington. 

The best arguments 
in favor of the Consti- 
tution were found in a 
newspaper written by 
Hamilton, Madison, 
and Jay. These articles 
took up the Consti- 
tution point by point 
and explained it to the 
people.^^ 

Richard Henry Lee 
of Virginia, wrote 
the most important 
arguments against the Constitution, 
the "Letters of a Federal Farmer." 
7 




CELEBRATING THE RATIFICATION OF THE CON- 
STITUTION IN NEW YORK CITY 



These were called 



1 62 



THE NEED FOR A STRONGER GOVERNMENT 



257. Celebrating the Fourth of July in Philadelphia 
(1788). Nowhere were the people happier than in the 







A VIEW OF THE SENATE CHAMBER IN AN EARLY DAY 

City of Brotherly Love when the good news came that 
Virginia was the tenth state to ratify the Constitution. 
They celebrated in grand style. Salutes were fired at 
sunrise, and the bells of the city rang a noisy welcome to 
the day as five thousand persons gathered for the parade. 
"Every trade, every ^business, every occupation of life 
was represented." When the procession ended, James 
Wilson (§250), a great friend of the Constitution, gave a 
stirring, patriotic oration. The rejoicing went on far 
into the night. 

This was a fitting celebration of the greatest event of 
the American Revolution by a city that had seen the 
meeting of the First Continental Congress, the signing 
of the Declaration of Independence, and the meeting of 
the Constitutional Convention. 



IMPORTANT POINTS IN THE CONSTITUTION 163 
IMPORTANT POINTS IN THE CONSTITUTION 

258. The new Congress or the legislative department. 

The old Congress had but one house , but the new Congress 
has two. The old represented the states, but the new, 
the people. The members of the lower house of Congress 
are elected by the people of the states every two years."'^ 
From this fact it may turn out that the representatives 
are of one party while the president belongs to another. 
To the lower house is given the right to originate money 
bills. This is an ancient custom coming down to us from 
the English constitution. 

The Senate is supposed to be conservative. Its mem- 
bers are required to be older. Then, too, they were 
elected by the state legislatures until 191 7. The term is 
three times as long as a representative's. These points 
make men steady-headed and careful in their work. 
When the Senate is considering a treaty or the appoint- 
ments to the cabinet or to the United States courts, it 
may go into secret session. 

259. Important powers of Congress. The old Congress 
lacked the power to raise money by taxation (§242). The 
new Congress was given that power. 

The Confederation could not raise an army or navy 
without permission of the states. Congress can do both. 

Commerce at home and abroad was in a bad state under 
the old Congress, but now Congress can regulate trade 
with foreign nations and between the states. 

Congress was given the power to coin money, a right 
it did not have before. The Constitution forbids the 
states to make money. 

The most far-reaching powers granted Congress are 
what are called "implied powers." These powers are 
granted in a clause which declares that Congress may 



1 64 THE NEED FOR A STRONGER GOVERNMENT 

make all laws necessary to carry into effect all powers 
granted by the Constitution to the new government. 
This clause stands next in importance to the so-called 
"Preamble" to the Constitution. 

260. The president the head of the executive depart- 
ment. The old Confederation had no president. The 
Convention decided to take the governor of the states as 
a model for the president (§158). A few wanted the presi- 
dent to serve for life, but the majority wanted him for 
a seven years' term.i°° They decided on four years with 
an opportunity for reelection. How to choose a president 
was a hard problem. The Convention finally decided in 
favor of electors chosen by each state, equal in number 
to the sum of its representatives and senators. The 
electors meet in each state and vote for a man to be presi- 
dent and for one for vice-president. 

261 . Some things the president may do. The president 
may help Congress make laws by signing them. If he 
does not sign the bill, it becomes a law after ten days. 
If he vetoes a bill, it does not become a law unless 
Congress passes it again by a two-thirds majority. 

The great work of the president is to carry out the laws. 
For this purpose he has the cabinet, '"^ with its many 
departments, and the army and the navy. The presi- 
dent's right to a cabinet is one of the imphed powers of 
the Constitution (§284). He may call out the mihtia 
to suppress rebelhon such as Shays' or Dorr's rebelhon 
(§244). He can call upon United States troops to protect 
the mails, as in Cleveland's time. 

The president, as commander-in-chief of the army and 
navy, in time of war has "war powers." These again are 
implied powers. The two most famous examples of the 
use of war powers are Lincoln's in the Civil War and 



IMPORTANT POINTS IN THE CONSTITUTION 165 

Wilson's in the great World War. No English king since 
George III has used so great power as did these two men 
of the people. 

The president may make treaties and appoint ministers 
and judges of the United States courts, by the advice and 
consent of the Senate. 

262. The United States courts, or the judicial depart- 
ment. The Confederation had no judges with the power 
to try men for breaking a law of Congress. Very few 
men in the Convention objected to having United States 
judges. They decided to make the judges a more con- 
servative body than the Senate. In the first place, they 
removed them as far from politics as possible; they are 
nominated by the president and passed on by the Senate ; 
they serve during good behavior and can be removed 
only by impeachment. Besides, their salaries cannot 
be cut down once they are in office. 

263. Cases to be tried by United States courts. The 
following trials must take place in the United States 
courts: (i) if a difference between two or more states 
calls for a trial; (2) if a man in one state sues a citizen in 
another state; (3) if ambassadors or other foreign officers 
bring suit; (4) if any suit arises under the Constitution 
or laws made by Congress. It is easy to see that the 
persons named would probably get more perfect justice 
in a Federal than in a state court. 

264. Officers of the courts. The attorney-general of 
the United States is a member of the cabinet. He may be 
looked upon as the head officer of the judicial department. 
Under him are the district attorneys, who begin and carry 
on cases coming before the courts. The Federal marshal 
acts as the sheriff of the courts to carry out their orders. 
He is also under the attorney-general. 



1 66 THE NEED FOR A STRONGER GOVERNMENT 

265. Laws declared unconstitutional. Suppose Con- 
gress or the legislature of a state passes a law not permitted 
by the Constitution. What can be done about it ? Some 
one may bring a suit before the court to test the law. The 
court will then declare the law is no law. 

When the Supreme Court first declared a law uncon- 
stitutional, some men were alarmed. They feared that 
the court would become more powerful than Congress. 
They even denied that the Constitution gave the court 
this power. The right of a Federal court to declare a law 
unconstitutional is not expressed in so many words in the 
Constitution but is an implied power. The use of this 
power has had a good effect. It has made Congress 
more careful in making laws. 

The courts of no other nation have this power. When 
the Parliament of Great Britain passes a law, no king 
can veto it and no court of the country can declare it 
null and void. 

266. Amending the Constitution. The men who made 
the Constitution felt that it was not perfect and that with 
experience to help them, they would wish to correct the 
defects. Hence the makers proposed two ways of chang- 
ing the Constitution, (i) If amendments pass both 
houses by a two-thirds vote, the proposed change is sent 
to the state legislatures or to state conventions. If three- 
fourths of the states approve the change, the amendment 
is added to the Constitution. (2) Or, if two-thirds of the 
legislatures of the states request it. Congress must call a 
national constitutional convention which may propose 
amendments. Such amendments, ratified by three- 
fourths of the states, become a part of the Constitution. 
Nineteen amendments have been made by the first plan, 
but none have been made by the second. 



IMPORTANT POINTS IN THE CONSTITUTION 167 

267. The first ten amendments. One of the most seri- 
ous objections made to the Constitution in the ratifying 
conventions (§256) was that it contained no Bill of 
Rights. In the first Congress (1789) Madison introduced 
many amendments intended to correct this defect. When 
they had been passed upon by Congress and the states, 
there were only ten left. These ten amendments have 
been called our "Bill of Rights. "10- Their purpose is to 
make sure that the government shall never take away the 
"personal liberties" of the people, such as freedom of 
religion, of speech, and of the press. The people are also 
protected in their right to assemble and petition for redress 
of grievances and in their right to a jury trial. The 
Ninth and Tenth Amendments were adopted to make 
clearer the line separating the powers of the Federal and 
the state governments. 

SUGGESTED READINGS 

References for teachers: Fiske, Cnitical Period of American His- 
tory, 145-315; Elson, Side Lights on American History, 24-53; Lodge, 
Hamilton ("American Statesmen Series"), 68-78; Tyler, Patrick 
Henry, 266-300; Gay, Madison, 88-127; Hosmer, Samuel Adams, 
389-401; Bassett, Short History, 240-254; McMaster, History of the 
American People, I, chaps, i-iv; Hart, Patriots and Statesmen, II, 
153^361; Hart, Source Book, nos. 64-70; McLaughlin, Confederation 
and Constilution, chap. iii. 

References for pupils: Hart, Formation of the Union, 104-133; 
Mace, George Washington, 140-152; Guitteau, Preparing for Citizen- 
ship, chap, xiii; Barstow, A New Nation, 3-24; Great Epochs in Ameri- 
can History, IV, 51-64. 

PROBLEMS AND PROJECTS 

I. Visit land grants in Indiana and Ohio and write home accounts 
of each. 2. Get letters from Washington, Patrick Henry, James 
Madison, and Samuel Adams on the Confederation. What does each 
think of a new government? 3. Dramatize the Constitutional 
Convention. 4. Attend one of the ratifying conventions and report 
the debates. 



CHAPTER XI 



THE BEGINNINGS OF THE NATION 

THE AMERICAN PEOPLE (1790-1800) 

268. The number of people in the United States (1790). 

When Washington became president (1789) he was at the 
head of nearly four million people. As in colonial days, 
the great majority lived near the ocean and on farms. 
Only three persons in every hundred lived in cities 
(§108). The most important places were Philadelphia 
with 42,000 people; New York, with 33,000; Boston, 
1 8, 000; Charleston, 16,000; and Baltimore, 14,000. These 
were called cities then, but now they would hardly be 




THE GROWTH OF SETTLED AREA IN I79O AND 180O 

looked upon as such. In spite of the war our people 
increased more than a million during that time. 

168 



THE AMERICAN PEOPLE (1790-lSOO) 169 

269. The spirit of the American people. We have seen 
great changes in the colonists during their one hundred 
and fifty years in America (§107). Further changes were 
wrought by the Revolution. Americans were made more 
democratic by fighting an autocratic king and by driving 
many Tories out of the country. But we must not 
forget that Americans were not even then as democratic 
as we are today. They still clung to the idea that 
birth, wealth, and position give persons standing in life, 
although ability and character were more and more 
coming to the front. 

270. Still imitating Europe. We had won our political 
independence but in many ways were still dependent 
upon Europe. We still loved English trade the best. 
Our fashions came from London, although our friendship 
for France brought in some French ways. But the 
French language stood in the way. Books were still few, 
and Americans read foreign authors. American poets 
and story-writers still imitated the English. Colleges 
and public schools, coming down from colonial days, 
were still English in their ways. 

271. The Revolution and education. War always 
destroys. No new colleges sprang up during the Revo- 
lution and few public schools. Students had to go to war 
instead of going to school. Outside of the cities there were 
hardly any schools during the war. They were much like 
those of colonial days (§125). In harmony with the more 
democratic ways caused by the Revolution, girls were 
gradually admitted to public schools, and young women 
were permitted to teach both boys and girls. 

But the long period of agitation and war produced a 
fine race of orators and writers. The public learned much 
by listening to them, or by reading what they wrote. 



I70 THE BEGINNINGS OF THE NATION 

Newspapers increased during this stormy time and led 
the people in a political way. 

272. Changes in religious life. Religious changes dur- 
ing colonial times had tended toward toleration (§130), 
The Revolution had started a nation-wide movement in 
favor of uniting all churches of the same faith into one 
body. This change was very much like the movement 
for a stronger national government. 

The English church in America at a convention in 
1783 declared in favor of calling itself the Protestant 
Episcopal Church in America. The Methodists grew 
during the Revolution, and in 1784 they held their first 
General Conference. This church split (1844) into a 
northern and southern church over slavery. 

The Presbyterians formed their General Assembly in 
1789, and the Roman Catholics secured their first bishop 
in 1790. The Baptists and the Congregationalists still 
held, with only slight changes, to the old independent 
congregations (§70). 

The Christians or Disciples, the Universalists, the Uni- 
tarians, and the Shakers arose in this period of agitation. 
All of these sects were very democratic in their church 
government. 

273. Religion and morality in practice. Some of the 
states still taxed people to pay for the support of minis- 
ters (§130), but this, too, was passing away under the new 
influence. The Constitution had declared (Amendment 
I) that Congress could not fix on the people any religious 
belief. 

But there was little practical sympathy for the unfor- 
tunate and the criminal. The jails were generally foul 
places, too foul for bodily health and too foul for mental 
health. The hardened criminal, the debtor who could 



THE AMERICAN PEOPLE (1790-1800) 171 

not pay, and the first ofiiender, old or young, were thrown 
together in the jail. There were few asylums or reforma- 
tories, and the insane and the pauper had to be taken care 
of at home or sent to jail. The old custom of punishing 
people in public was gradually passing away. 

274. Slavery. During the war slavery had existed in 
all the states, but it never struck deep root in the North. 
It could not be used with profit on small farms and in 
hand industries. Such slaves as were found in this 
section were mainly house-servants. The Quakers still 
preached against slavery (§111), and a few in other 
churches raised their voices against it. The Revolution, 
with its emphasis on the Rights of Man, joined hands 
with these religious forces and aroused a stronger senti- 
ment against slavery. This was strong enough to abolish 
slavery in New England and Pennsylvania by 1790. 
New York and New Jersey followed a bit later. 

Many people in the South opposed slavery on moral 
grounds as well as because of its deadening effect on indus- 
try. No one in the Constitutional Convention spoke 
stronger words against the institution than George Mason, 
a Virginia slaveholder. 

275. Industry during the Revolution. We could trade 
but little with Europe during the war. Hence we had 
to depend upon home industries. The best of our people 
were proud to wear homespun. This made a demand 
upon the farmer for more wool and cotton, and upon the 
spinners and weavers for more thread and more cloth. 

New industries sprang up under war conditions, and 
old ones were made larger. Gunsmiths were in demand 
all over the country, but the towns of Springfield, Massa- 
chusetts, and Waterbury, Connecticut, became great 
gunmaking centers. In Maryland cannon balls were 



172 THE BEGINNINGS OF THE NATION 

manufactured. '°2 Saltpeter mines had to be opened so 
powder could be made. Shoemakers, harnessmakers, and 
saddlemakers found themselves hard pressed to meet the 
demands of the army. 

A New York ' ' Society for the Promotion of Arts, Agri- 
culture, and Economy" offered premiums for linen, yarn, 
and woven stockings, and in Boston a spinning school 
was set up to teach women to spin. In Philadelphia a 
factory was opened which employed five hundred people 
in weaving linen and woolen cloth. Lancaster and Read- 
ing, Pennsylvania, were important manufacturing towns. 
In New Jersey, there were forty-one fulling machines for 
finishing the cloth made in farmhouses. In the South 
planters raised enough wool and cotton to clothe their 
servants and themselves. "^^ 

276. Industrial and political revolutions. We have 
already seen how the American Revolution changed the 
minds of men in England and France (§§215, 235). 
Toward its close two mighty changes in England and 
France began to influence America. The French Revolu- 
tion made a powerful appeal to Americans because the 
French were throwing off the rule of the king and were 
setting up a republic (§287). Long before these events 
England had been undergoing a mighty industrial change. 
Men have called it the Industrial Revolution. This change 
was caused by three inventions : (i) a spinning machine, 
producing many threads at once instead of one; (2) a 
weaving machine, producing many yards of cloth instead 
of one; (3) an engine using steam instead of muscle to 
drive machinery. 

277. How the machine came to America. These inven- 
tions gave England a big advantage over other nations. 
She passed a law punishing anyone for taking these 



THE AMERICAN PEOPLE (1790-1800) 



173 



machines or drawings of them out of the country. But the 
shrewd Yankee soon found a way. He offered generous 
rewards to anyone who would' set up these machines in 
America. Several experiments were made. But in 1789 
Samuel Slater, an Englishman, came. He had memorized 
an English mill with its machinery. He set up a mill 
at Pawtucket, Rhode Island. The machines in this 
were turned by water, and then the hand wheels for 
spinning flax and wool began to change to this new inven- 
tion. Likewise, the spinning and weaving began to 
change from the home to the factory. In the nooks and 
corners of America people still use the wheel and the 
hand loom. 

278. The cotton gin, an American invention (1793). 
Near Savannah, Georgia, lived Mrs. Nathanael Greene 
(§231). A Yankee school 
teacher, Eli Whitney, was 
paying her a visit. He 
heard planters tell how 
hard it was to separate the 
seed from cotton. Only 
five or six pounds a day 
was a man's work. This 
did not pay. Whitney put 
his mind to work and soon 
had a machine ready which 
separated the seeds from 
300 to 1,000 pounds of cot- 
ton per day. This inven- 
tion produced a revolution in the cotton industry. The 
year before the use of the gin, the South sent 630 bales 
to England; the year after, 7,000; by 1800, 79,000 bales 
were sent abroad. The cotton industry increased by 




THE ORIGINAL COTTON GIN 



174 



THE BEGINNINGS OF THE NATION 



leaps and bounds. The price of slaves rose, and the 
demand for new cotton lands in the South increased. 




EMIGRANTS LEAVING FOR THE WEST IN CONESTOGA WAGONS 

Cotton mills sprang up in the North, and it became 
harder to free the slaves. 

279. The new West. Even before the Revolution, we 
saw a new West growing up around the sources of the 
Ohio and in the Allegheny regions (§225). The hardy 
sons of the East and South now pressed rapidly west- 
ward along old Indian trails which led to Kentucky, 
Tennessee, and Ohio. vSome of them were attracted by 
the stories of the adventures that awaited the settler. 
Others were drawn by the beauty of the country, the 
richness of the soil,, and most of all by the great supply 
of cheap lands awaiting them. 

Several families in their Conestoga wagons usually 
made the journey together. The women and children 



THE AMERICAN PEOPLE (1790-lSOO) 



175 



rode in the wagons or on horseback, while fathers and sons 
looked after herds of cattle or flocks of sheep if they had 
them. At night they "camped out," well guarded by dog 
and gun. They were thankful when a river was reached 
big enough to carry them near their settlement. This 
was a hard, slow way to travel, and we shall soon hear 
these settlers calling for better roads and waterways 
between the East and the West. 

280. The trade of the new West. These hardy people 
had only a few things to sell, but they needed to sell them 




EARLY TRAILS AND POST ROADS OVER WHICH THE 

PIONEERS TRAVELED WESTWARD 

in the best market. Only a few things, such as cloth, nails, 
hides, fur, and ginseng, could be put on pack horses and 



176 



THE BEGINNINGS OF THE NATION 



sent eastward over the mountains. The settlers loved to 
trade in their old homes, but there were no good roads, 




TRANSPORTATION BY WATER BY MEANS OF THE FLATBOAT 

and it was hard to get there. Their heavy articles, such 
as flour, bacon, and cattle, had to float down some stream 
to the Ohio, and on down the Mississippi to New Orleans. 
Here the goods were transferred to ocean-going vessels 
and carried to the cities of the Atlantic coast and the 
markets of the world. 

What it meant to the Union, let Washington tell:^"^ 
"The western settlers stand, as it were, upon a pivot. 
The touch of a feather would turn them any way. They 
looked down the Mississippi .... for no other reason 
than because they could glide down the stream." But 
the Spaniards were foolish enough to charge the settlers 
heavy duties. The settlers in turn demanded the right to 
trade free of charge. The Spaniards in turn seized their 
boats and cargoes and left the angry owners to tramp their 
long way home, telling the story to other backwoodsmen. 
They threatened to rise and drive the Spaniards into the 
Gulf. But in 1795 Spain granted the free use of the 
mouth of the Mfesissippi to western trade. 



WASHINGTON THE FIRST PRESIDENT i77 

281. Little improvement in ways of travel. There had 
been but little change in travel by land or water (§151). 
Between the larger towns, stagecoaches carried passengers, 
and mail carriers came about once a week. The stage 
went from Boston to Philadelphia in about eight days. 
Freight wagons reached Pittsburgh from Philadelphia in 
about twenty days, charging $2.00 per hundred pounds. 

. Now it costs but a few cents to carry such a load. 

On the water men still used sail and oar (§151). Flat- 
boats and sailboats were the larger vessels used. But 
in this very period experiments were being made which 
promised to revolutionize river trade and travel. More 
or less successful efforts were made in New England, the 
middle states, and in the South, to invent a steamboat. 

WASHINGTON THE FIRST PRESIDENT (1789-97) 

282. The first national election. The first election 
under the Constitution was very different from elections 
today. There were no excitement, no orators, and no 
torchlight processions. Each state followed its own plan 
of voting. The electors all voted for Washington, as was 
expected. John Adams was elected vice-president.""' It 
was Virginia and Massachusetts again (§196). 

283. The first president. The man who had led their 
.armies and who had been head of their Constitutional Con- 
vention was now going to put into effect the Constitution 
he had helped to make. From Alexandria, his home town, 
he began the journey to New York, at that time the 
capital. All along the way he was made to feel how 
greatly beloved he was by the people. At Baltimore, 
his neighboring city, he was welcomed by flags and 
bunting, and by shouting people; in Philadelphia, by 
laurel and liberty caps, ringing of bells, and booming of 



lyS 



THE BEGINNINGS OF THE NATION 



cannon; in Trenton, by a triumphal arch resting on thir- 
teen pillars. As Washington passed under the arch 

maidens, strewing 
flowers, came for- 
ward to meet him. 
What memories 
Princeton and 
Trenton must have 
recalled (§207) ! 

New York Bay 
was black with 
IDcople in boats, 
shouting and sing- 
ing. Both home 
and foreign war- 
ships fired salutes. 
Congressmen and 
governors and dis- 
tinguished citizens 
escorted Washington to the home in which he was 
to live. On April 30 he stood in old Federal Hall, his 
hand upon the Bible, and took the oath as president 
(Art. II, §1, %8). His hand trembled as he read 
his inaugural address. He was now to travel a road no 
man had trod, for he was now the president of a rei^ublic. 
284. Appointing great men to office. Among the great 
men' appointed to hold office were Thomas Jefferson, 
secretary of state, to look after our relations with foreign 
nations; Alexander Hamilton, secretary of the treasury, 
to look after the money and debts of the country; 
General Knox, secretary of war and the navy; and 
Edmund Randolph, to take charge of the questions of 
law coming before the new government. These men 




THE INAUGURATION OF WASHINGTON 



WASHINGTON THE FIRST PRESIDENT 



179 



made up what has been called the cabinet. They were to 
advise the president on all questions about which he wanted 
to know. Sometimes he asked each one separately for 
his advice, and at others he called them together to get 
the benefit of their joint wisdom. 

The Constitution did not mention these departments 
by name, nor did it contain the word " cabinet. "^''^ But 
the Constitution did mention 
a Supreme Court with judges. 
Washington appointed that 
distinguished Huguenot 
lawyer, John Jay, as first judge 
of the Supreme Court (§189). 
Washington was careful to put 
good and true men in office in 
spite of the fact that many 
persons wrote letters urging 
him to appoint their friends. 

285. Paying the national 
debt. The old Confederation 
could not pay its debts 
(§243), and in 1790 these 
amounted to more than 
$50,000,000. They included what we had borrowed 
from our citizens, from our friends, France and Holland, 
and the debts of the different states.'"'^ Hamilton said 
the new government should take over the latter and 
pay them. This meant that the Federal government 
had to find some means of raising a large sum of 
money. Hamilton boldly attacked this problem by 
favoring the following measures: (i) a tariff on foreign 
goods to bring money into the treasury; (2) the crea- 
tion of a United States bank (1791) to handle the 




JOHN JAY 



THE BEGINNINGvS OF THE NATION 



money of the country; (3) an excise tax, a tax on 
distilled liquors. All of these measures became law. 
Some money from these sources was set aside to pay 
the national debt, and some to pay the running expenses 
of the government. 

286. Opposition. Origin of political parties. Debates 
in Congress over these questions showed great differences 



'^-^ 






^rssm^. 






!3ipifll,. I,'.-] 







THE FIRST UNITED STATES BANK AT PHILADELPHIA 

of opinions, especially those on the United States bank. 
Washington took the opinion in writing of Hamilton 
favoring, and Jefferson opposing the bank. Washington 
signed the bill (Art. I, §7). On other measures, also, 
disputes arose until there were formed two groups of men 
in and out of Congress. 

Hamilton represented one group who called themselves 
Federalists. ^0* They believed in making the national 
government strqng and in using all the powers granted 
and implied in the Constitution. Because Hamilton's 
financial measures had improved business, the trading 
states supported him. The Federalists were accused of 
favoring monarchy and of building up a "money power" 
in the country that would keep laborers and farmers 
working for many a long year to pay off the debt. 



THE ORIGIN OF OUR FOREIGN POLICY i8i 

Jefferson led the opposition, which took the name of 
RepubHcans. ^^^ They beheved in strong state governments 
and in Congress' using only those powers named in the 
Constitution. Jefferson drew most of his support from 
the planting states and the frontier communities. He 
believed in the common man, disliked big cities, and was 
afraid of the Federal government getting too much' 
power through Hamilton's measures. 

THE ORIGIN OF OUR FOREIGN POLICY 

287. The French Revolution raises hard questions. 

The revolution was a conflict in France between the king, 
the nobles, and the rich on the one side, and the peasant 
farmers and the poor of the cities on the other. The first 
class did not pay their share of the taxes, and the burdens 
fell so much the heavier on the second class. The king, 
Louis XVI, was too weak to see justice done. Besides, 
his fine nobles and women wasted vast sums of money 
obtained by taxes. 

The king summoned a national congress,^^"^ called the 
Estates General, to save France from bankruptcy (1789). 
Lafayette was a member. Imitating America, the Estates 
drew up a constitution. But the French people had 
suffered too long. They overthrew their king, set up a 
republic, and abolished all titles. Finally they beheaded 
the king and queen. This led to war with the nations of 
Europe, including England. 

What will the United States do? France came to our 
aid in the Revolution, and ought we not to go to her aid? 

288. Washington consults his cabinet. Washington 
took the advice of his cabinet and sent forth a declaration 
that the United States would not take sides with either 
party in the war. This has been called a "Proclamation 



i82 THE BEGINNINGS OF THE NATION 

of Neutrality." The year 1793 marks the beginning of 
our poHcy of not taking part in European quarrels. 

But many Americans did not agree with Washington. 
They declared that he was favoring kings in their war 
against the French people. They held feasts, toasted 
the French^ wore French colors, and called each other 
'"Citizen" or "Citizeness" instead of Mr. and Mrs. 
Feeling ran high, the Republicans standing for France 
and the Federalists for England. 

289. Troubles over trade. The war in Europe made it 
dangerous for French and British ships to sail the sea. 
This left American neutral ships to carry much of the 
trade to both countries. But neither France nor England 
liked to see American ships carrying trade to the other. 
Now any nation at war has the right to capture ships 
if they are caught carrying guns, powder, and other war 
stores to a blockaded port. 

But England went farther. She captured American 
ships carrying wheat, sugar, and coffee to France. Some 
of these goods came from the United States and some from 
the French West Indies, but England claimed the right 
to capture all of them. Besides, she held to the doctrine 
that "Once an Englishman, always an Englishman. ""^ 
Hence she searched American ships and in some cases 
seized American-born sailors because they looked like 
Englishmen. This act was called "impressing" sea- 
men, and aroused great indignation throughout the 
country. Men began to talk of war. 

290. Jay's Treaty (1794). Feeling in the West was 
hot. The settlers believed that England, which still 
held the western posts given us by the Treaty of 1783, 
was encouraging the Indians to attack us. Washington 
sent Jay to make a treaty with England. Jay secured 



iHOME PROBLEMS AGAIN 



183 



a pledge to give up the western posts, but failed to 
get relief for our seamen. Search and impressment went 
on. That part of the treaty in regard to our trade was 
so bad that the Senate refused to ratify it. The treaty 
probably saved us from war. It was so unpopular that 
in some places it was burned, and Alexander Hamilton 
was stoned in New York for defending it. 

HOME PROBLEMS AGAIN 

291. Washington refuses a third term. His death 
(1799). For eight years Washington had labored faith- 
fully and well. He had laid the foundations of the new 
government deep in the hearts of his countrymen. He 
refused a third election and retired to his beloved Mount 
Vernon, bearing the affections of the civilized world. He 
sent forth a farewell address 

carrying his good wishes to 
the people and expressing a 
desire that they avoid the dan- 
gers of party strife. He was 
happy on his farm once more. 
He died at the age of sixty- 
seven and was mourned by 
the people of all the world. "^ 

292. The race between 
Adams and Jefferson (1797). 
Adams and Jefferson had been 
great friends. Both were on 
the committee which made the 
Declaration of Independence, 
bne was its author and the 
other its orator. One was minister to England and the 
other to France under the Confederation. But now they 




1 84 THE BEGINNINGS OF THE NATION 

began to separate. Adams was a Federalist, Jefferson 
was a Republican, and both were candidates for the 
presidency. Adams won the election by three electoral 
votes. Jefferson became vice-president (Art. II, §i, ^[3). 

293. Relations with France again. France was angry 
because of Ja3^'s Treaty, and for a short time there was 
war on the sea with that nation. President Adams 
sent three men to France to make a treaty. But they 
were told that certain men"-* of influence must be paid 
$250,000 before anything could be done. Americans 
were indignant. They declared that we had "millions 
for defense, but not one cent for tribute." The cause 
of France suddenly became unpopular, and everybody 
cheered for the President and joined in singing the new 
song, "Hail Columbia." Congress caught the enthu- 
siasm and voted to increase the army and to build more 
and bigger warships. 

294. The decline of the Federalists. The Federahsts 
found themselves riding a wave of popular favor. They 
took advantage of it to pass two laws: one to give the 
president power to order aliens out of the country without 
trial if they were considered dangerous ; and the other to 
punish by fine and imprisonment speakers or writers who 
falsely criticized the government or its high officers. 
These are called the Alien and Sedition laws."'^ 

Some Federalists denounced these acts, and the Repub- 
licans were angry. The Sedition Act especially roused 
them, and when the courts began to send men to prison 
for violating it, they said it was being used by the gov- 
ernment to stop free discussion of political questions and 
keep the Federalists in power. Jefferson and Madison 
seized their pens and wrote the Kentuck}^ and Virginia 
resolutions, declaring the acts were a violation of the 



HOME PROBLEMS AGAIN 



185 



Constitution (Amendment I). Kentucky declared that 
any state might excuse its citizens from obeying such a 
Federal law. This was the doctrine of "nullification." 
It later made much trouble. 

Hamilton had shown his opposition to the Alien and 
Sedition laws. He also had criticized President Adams' 
administration. This further split the Federalists. 

295. The first real presidential campaign (1800). The 
candidates were Adams and Jefferson again. Adams was 
called an "aristocrat." He was a bit reserved and did not 
welcome the common people to a part in the government. 
Jefferson was called a "m-obocrat" because he sym- 
pathized with the people of France. He had great faith 
in the common people, and 
they naturally loved him. 
Republicans pointed to what 
then seemed great extra- 
vagance. The cost of gov- 
ernment had mounted from 
$3,000,000 in 1792 to over 
$10,000,000 in 1800. This 
taken with the split among 
the Federalists, led to their 
defeat. The electoral vote 
stood 65 for Adams and 73 
for Jefferson. 

But Jefferson was not yet 
president. Aaron Burr, a 
political boss in New York, 
received ^j^i votes also. The 
election was thus thrown into 
the lower house of Congress ^^^ (Art. 




n, §1, 



^[3), 



where 



the Federalists had a majority. It is supposed that 



1 86 THE BEGINNINGS OF TPIE NATION 

Hamilton's influence elected Jefferson because he thought 
Jefferson less dangerous than Burr. 

Just before leaving the presidency, Adams appointed 
John Marshall of Virginia as chief justice of the Supreme 
Court. He was a Federalist, and his decisions saved 
the government from running too much toward States' 
Rights (§286). 

SUGGESTED READINGS 

References for teachers: Bogart, Economic History of the United 
States, chaps, x, xi; McDonald, Front Jefferson to Lincoln, chap, i; 
Coman, Industrial History, 132-156; Elson, Side Lights on American 
History, I, chaps, iii, iv; Hart, Formation of the Union, 103-175; Hart, 
Contemporaries, III, 14-93, 255-343; Hart, Patriots and Statesmen, II, 
363-380; in, 15-S5; McMaster, History of the American People, II, 
1-58, 135-142; Walker, 77/e Making of the Natioji, 64-168; Lodge, 
Washington ("American Statesmen Series"), H, 42-46. 

References for pupils: Mace, Stories of Heroism, 125-127; Mace, 
Washington, a Virginia Cavalier; Hart, Source Book, 1 66-1 S3; Hart, 
Source Reader, III, 45-96. 

Fiction: Brown, Arthur Mervyn; Mitchell, Red City. 

PROBLEMS AND PROJECTS 

I. Your great-grandfather kept a diary, 1 790-1800. Report on 
the part telling how the people lived at that time. 2. Visit George 
Mason before the invention of the cotton gin and listen while he 
argues against slavery. Tell what he said. 3. Boys and girls are 
stationed at Alexandria, Baltimore, Philadelphia, Trenton, and New 
York Bay to witness the passing of Washington. Tell what they 
saw. 4. Attend Washington's receptions. Tell what the people say 
about them. 5. Attend a banquet given in honor of Genet in Phila- 
delphia. Write a report for a Federalist paper. 



CHAPTER XII 



THE REPUBLICAN PARTA^ IN POWER 



JEFFERSON IN CONTROL (lSOl-9) 

296. The first Republican president. There was joy 
among RepubHcans when they learned of Jefferson's 
election. Fear filled the hearts of his opponents because 
they honestly believed that the government was on the 
road to ruin. Jefferson was a many-sided man. He 
was a planter, a scientist, and a philosopher. He corre- 
sponded with many foreigners about useful inventions, 
tools for farming, books, and politics. 

Jefferson has been called our shrewdest politician. He 
set out to win Federalists to his party and succeeded. 




MONTICELLO, THE HOME OF THOMAS JEFFERSON 

He said in his inaugural: "We are all Republicans; we 
are all Federalists." He declared in favor of "equal and 

187 



1 88 THE REPUBLICAN PARTY IN POWER 

exact justice to all men — peace, commerce, and honest 
friendship with all nations — -entangling alliances with 
none .... Economy in the public expense — and the 
honest payment of our public debts." 

Jefferson was opposed to pomp and show. He knew 
that simplicity and economy appealed to most men when 
they had to pay the bills. Hence he put aside processions 
and riding in great carriages drawn by fine horses, as 
Washington and Adams had done. He walked to the 
new capitol^^^ with friends and read his inaugural. He 
sent his messages to Congress to be read, while Washington 
and Adams had been driven there and had read their 
messages in person. 

297. A popular president. Jefferson made himself 
popular with all classes except the extreme Federalists. 
Congress did about as he wished. It cut down the army 
and navy, for Jefferson was a man of peace. It repealed 
the excise law, for it was unpopular (§285). Our trade 
with Europe was bringing millions of money into the coun- 
try (§285). Jefferson had appointed a famous financier, 
Albert Gallatin, a native of Switzerland, to care for 
our money. By the end of Jefferson's first term he saw 
nearly half of our national debt wiped out. Jefferson, 
too, had been troubled by "office seekers" (§284). He 
did not appoint many, because of the men holding office 
he said: "Few die and none resign." It is now easy for 
us to see why Jefferson received so great a vote in the 
Electoral College (1805) for a second term. 

PEOPLING THE WEST 

298. The West calls again. We have seen how the 
settlers west of the Alleghenies felt about closing the 
mouth of the Mississippi (§280). The news suddenly 



PEOPLING THE WEST 



189 



Spread over the West that the mouth of the river was 
closed and that Napoleon, the victorious French general, 




^. ^^S^J©^;;^ 










FIRST SETTLEMENT OF LOUISVILLE 

had charge of it instead of Spain (1802). Napoleon had 
swept all Western Europe with his victorious soldiers 
and now began to dream of an empire in America, a revival 
of the New France that had been the dream of La Salle 

(§163). 

The rifleman of the West took down his gun, looked it 
over, and started for the place of meeting. He was either 
going to petition President Jefferson to stop Napoleon, 
or he was going to join his fellows, march to New 
Orleans, and settle matters. Napoleon had already 
changed his mind. The British navy stood in Napoleon's 
way. Jefferson had also written a note, probably seen 
by Napoleon, declaring that "there is on the globe one 
single spot, the possessor of which is our natural and 
habitual enemy. It is New Orleans." He also said that 
if Napoleon went farther in America, we should "marry 
ourselves to the British fleet and nation." 



igo 



THE REPUBLICAN PARTY IN POWER 



299. The purchase of Louisiana (1803). Napoleon 
saw the point. If he did not, our minister, Robert R, 
Livingston, had convinced him before Monroe arrived that 
he must sell the whole of Louisiana or lose it. Jefferson 
had sent Monroe to buy only the Island of Orleans and 
West Florida. Both ministers were enthusiastic over 
buying the whole of Louisiana Territory and agreed to 
pay $15,000,000 for it. 

At one peaceful blow Jefferson had doubled the size of 
the United States. Federalist leaders of New England 
were angry. They denied the right to purchase Louisiana 
since that power was not given in the Constitution. 
Jefferson himself was in doubt! But he took the advice 
of friends, since the West and South were bent on getting 
this region (see map for boundaries) . 

The frontiersmen were happy, and only a few of the 
wilder spirits among them joined Burr's treasonable 
expedition to the Southwest."^ 
Their commerce now had free 
outlet to the Atlantic states 
and to Europe. No doubt the 
purchase of Louisiana hastened 
development in the Mississippi 
Valley. 

300. The Lewis and Clark 
expedition to Oregon. Like 
Washington, Jefferson had a 
vision of the great future of the 
United States. The people 
knew little of the new country 
of Louisiana. But he decided 
that they should know more. He sent forth the first 
great expedition to explore this region and to gather some 




MERIWETHER LEWIS 



PEOPLING THE WEST 



191 



notion of its resources. Lewis and Clark headed a band 
of men who trained Hke soldiers for their task. They left 




THE LEWIS AND CLARK EXPEDITION 



the town of St. Louis (1804) and sailed and paddled up the 
Missouri to where Bismarck, North Dakota, now stands. 
Here they spent the winter. 

From this point they were guided by an Indian woman"^ 
up the river and across- the mountains. They found the 
headwaters of the Missouri and the Columbia near 
together. This western river they followed until it 
flowed into the blue waters of the Pacific. There 
they remained all winter, writing up their journals and 
drawing maps of the region explored. In the spring they 
returned to the Missouri by way of the Yellowstone 
River. The American people opened their eyes as they 
read the story of the mighty West. 

301. Our claim to the Oregon country. This expedi- 
tion gave us a firmer claim to this region. As early 
as 1792 Captain Gray, a fur trader, in the good ship 
"Columbia," saw a river and gave it the name of his 
ship. Our right was made still more secure by another 
fur trader, John Jacob Astor. He sent two parties to 



192 



THE REPUBLICAN PARTY IN POWER 




'^T^o::^^^ 






ZEBULON PIKE 



Oregon: one directly across the mountains and another 
by way of Cape Horn. They planted Astoria (i8i i), but 

they were driven out the next 
yearby British fur traders. Fur 
trading was still a factor in the 
making of the United States 

(§144). 

302. Zebulon Pike explores 
the West. While Lewis and 
Clark were hunting for the 
secrets of the Missouri and the 
Columbia, Lieutenant Pike was 
moving up the Mississippi to 
find its source. He reached 
Cass Lake but went no farther. 
After his return he was sent out 
to trace the boundary between Louisiana and New Spain. 
He followed the Missouri, then went up the Osage for a 
time and into Colorado. Here he climbed the famous 
IDeak which bears his name. He then crossed over into 
vSpanish territory, was captured and taken to Santa Fe. 
The Spaniards took him to El Paso, where he was set free, 
and he finally reached home (1807). 

303. New states organized in the West. The new 
states organized since the Revolution were all in the West 
except Vermont (1791), the fourteenth state. 

Vermont, the Green Mountain state, was the first state 
after the original thirteen to come into the Union. 
Champlain, the Frenchman (§161), first saw this country 
(1609). The French settled Fort St. Anne (1665). 
Massachusetts built Dummer (1724). New Hampshire 
and New York both laid claims to portions of Vermont's 
territory. The Green Mountain Boys, organized to 



PEOPLING THE WEST 



193 



resist New York's claims, did heroic service in the Revo- 
lution. Southern sympathizers from Canada invaded 
St. Albans (1864). This place was in turn headquarters 
for the Fenian invasion of Canada (1870). Vermont 
celebrated the Tercentenary of the discovery of Lake 
Champlain in 1909. 

Kentucky, since the Revolution, had been making great 
strides. Over Boone's Wilderness road (§225), the 
people were pouring into this charming region. Both 
Lexington and Louisville had been begun during the Revo- 
lution. Kentucky contained 75,000 people in 1790, and 
was admitted to the Union as the fifteenth state in 1792. 
In 1800 she had a population of 220,000, and in 1810, over 
406,000. Henry Clay had already come from Virginia 
and was capturing the western people by his eloquent 
voice and his winsome 'manners! On the soil of this 













>^-fi&c;;;.>,.,>..-»^;n.>iv>..» 



EARLY LEXINGTON 



state, not far apart, wer^ born those two sons of destiny, 
Abraham Lincoln (1809) and Jefferson Davis (1808). 
8 



194 



THE REPUBLICAN PARTY IN POWER 



Tennessee (§225) was crowding Kentucky. Settlers 
were pouring in from the East and South. When the 










FORT WASHINGTON, CINCINNATI, IN I789 

first census was taken (1790) she had over thirty-five 
thousand people. With this showing she was admitted to 
the Union in 1796. Two of her early heroes were James 
Robertson and John Sevier, but the most famous man in 
all her history was General Andrew Jackson. 

304. Ohio the first of the old Northwest. Three 
flags had waved over Ohio: the French, the British, and 
the American. Ohio was the first child of the Ordinance 
of 1787 (§248). The Virginia Military Reservation and 
the Western Reserve had already been located (§247). 
New England Revolutionary veterans, led by General 
Putnam, settled Marietta (1788). In the same year 
Cincinnati was located. Here Fort Washington gave 
protection to the struggling soldiers of St. Clair's army, 
beaten by the Indians (1790). Mad Anthony Wayne 
won the final victory over the r^d men at Fallen Timbers 
and forced them to sign the Treaty of Greenville (1795). 



TROUBLES WITH FOREIGN NATIONS AGAIN 195 

Settlers now rushed in from the South and settled around 
Chillicothe, and those from the East settled around 
Cleveland. Ohio had over forty thousand people when 
admitted (1803), but in 18 10 she had over two hundred 
and thirty thousand. She shares with Virginia the honor 
of being the mother of presidents. Six were elected from 
Ohio, and two others were born within her borders. 

TROUBLES WITH FOREIGN NATIONS AGAIN 

305. The rise of Napoleon. Napoleon Bonaparte was 
born on the island of Corsica in the Mediterranean, then 
belonging to France. He was sent to a military school 
and became an artillery officer. He made himself famous 
by placing his cannon where they swept Paris free of a 
mob. He was sent to Italy (1796) at the head of a half- 
starved army, but won victory after victory over the 
Austrians. He was then sent to Egypt. 

He returned to France a great hero and had himself 
elected First Consul. For half a dozen years his armies 
were victorious. He was probably the greatest general 
that ever headed an army. He wished to rule all Europe, 
but the English navy was in his way. He decided to 
invade England, but in the Battle of Trafalgar Nelson 
defeated the combined fleets of France and Spain (1805). 

306. Jefferson gets into trouble. Jefferson .was friendly 
with France and Napoleon (§295). Then England began 
to search our ships and impress our seamen again (§289). 
Jefferson did not want war and tried to make a treaty, 
but would not even show it to the Senate. He then tried 
the old Non-Importation Act (§181), but England was too 
busy with Napoleon to give attention to non-importation. 
Finally an English ship fired into an American vessel, the 
"Chesapeake," and compelled her to submit to search. 



196 



THE REPUBLICAN PARTY IN POWER 




HOW THE FEDERALISTS RIDICULED THE EMBARGO 



British officers carried away both British and American 
seamen (§289). Public meetings denounced this attack 

and demanded war. 

307. Napoleon's 
European blockades 
(1807). Napoleon 
decided to strike a 
great blow at Eng- 
land's chief source of 
strength, her trade. 
He blockaded all of 
Western Europe and 
declared that no Eng- 
lish goods or English ships should enter any of these ports. 
England was furious and declared that any vessels found 
sailing for France should be seized. American ships were 
between two fires. The English had the greater navy 
and could do more harm than the French, but between 
them in a few years they captured over a thousand 
American vessels. 

308. The Embargo strikes our trading and other 
economic interests (1807). Jefferson tried to get reHef by 
the Embargo. This law simply forbade American vessels 
to leave home ports and English vessels to enter them. 
The loss of trade was intended to bring England to time. 
Although England suffered, she could not turn away from 
the struggle with Napoleon. But we suffered more from 
the Embargo than England did. It hit hard all parts of 
the country. The shipowners and sailors of New Eng- 
land, the cotton and tobacco growers of the South, and 
the farmers of the West were all badly hurt. Smuggling 
flourished with Canada, Florida, and the West Indies. 
Much to his sorrow, Jefferson had to submit to the repeal 



TROUBLES WITH FOREIGN NATIONS AGAIN tQ^ 



of the Embargo in the last days of his administration. 
It had failed to do the things he had hoped for. 

309. Madison president (1809-17). Madison had been 
a warm supporter of Jefferson since the beginning of 
parties (§286). Jefferson had shown his friendship by 
making Madison his secretary of state. Madison, like 
Jefferson, tried to keep on friendly terms with Napoleon. 
But Napoleon was tricky. In the Embargo days when 
American ships were not permitted to go to Europe, 
Napoleon captured some that went to France, but he said 
he was only aiding Jeff ei-son in enforcing the Embargo ! 

310. The Non-Intercourse Acts. The United States 
promised that if either England or France would repeal the 
laws against American trade, she would immediately 
open up trade with that one and refuse to trade with the 
other (1809). Napoleon seemed to agree to this, but when 
American ships reached France he seized their cargoes 
worth $10,000,000. , ^ 

311. The "War Hawks." 
The rising tide of war was 
best represented in the new 
Congress by men from the 
far South and the new 
West. These were nick- 
named "War Hawks" by 
John Randolph, a Repub- 
lican opposed to war.'-" 
The ablest among them 
were John C. Calhoun of 
South Carolina and Henry 
Clay of Kentucky. Both 
had been fired by the Indian outbreaks which they 
supposed England had stirred up, and by the insults 




CLAY AND CALHOUN URGING MADISON TO 
DECLARE WAR 



igS THE REPUBLICAN PARTY IN POWER 

heaped upon our ships at sea by both England and France 
(§307). Clay declared that we could defeat England in 
Canada. We had about seven million people, and 
Canada less than five hundred thousand. It seemed 
Clay was right. But he did not count all the factors. It 
was a hard road through the woods to Canada. Besides, 
not all our people favored war. 

SUGGESTED READINGS 

References for teachers: Hart, Formation of the Union, 176-206; 
Hart, Contemporaries, HI, 31-72, 106-122, 331-422; Hart, Patriots 
and Statesmen, III, 87-191; Walker, The Making of the Nation, 
64-168; McMaster, History of the American People, III, 53-307; 
Elson, Side Lights on American History, I, 54-79; Gay, Madison 
("American Statesmen Series"); Morse, Jefferson ("American States- 
men Series"), 210-212; Coman, Industrial History, 175-179. 

References for pupils: Earle, Stage Coach and Tavern Days, 253- 
264; Mace, Primary History, 241-300; McMurray, Pioneers of the 
Rocky Mountains, 1-40; Wright, Stories of Progress, 104-144; Butter- 
worth, In the Days of Jefferson, 32-162; Hart, Source Book, 181-200, 
226-228; Hart, Source Reader, 11, nos. 60, 76-80, 89-93; Conant, 
Alexander Hamilton; Seawell, Decatur and Sommers. 

Fiction: Hale, Man without a Country; Barr, Trinity Bells; Stowe, 
Minister's Wooing; Bynner, Zachary Phipps; Hale, Nolan's Friends. 

PROBLEMS AND PROJECTS 

I. You live in 1890 and find a letter from your great-grandfather 
telHng how they lived and what they did in 1790. 2. Write an essay 
telling of the "good old times" when Jefferson was inaugurated. 

3. Write a letter to an admirer of Washington giving reasons for 
thinking Jefferson ought to take his place as president. Let some one 
else write a letter urging that John Adams should succeed Washington. 

4. You are in a theater. News is read of the X. Y. Z. Affair. Music 
strikes up the "President's March." The people rise and clap. 
Describe your feelings to a friend. 5. You are the daughter of a 
senator in the time of Madison. Write a letter to your "chum" back 
east telling of Dolly Madison and the President's reception. Compare 
it with Washington's reception. 



CHAPTER XIII 
THE WAR OF 1812 

A WAR FOR FREEDOM OF COMMERCE 

312. Declaration of war (1812). Hundreds of people, 
mostly Federalists, thought Napoleon was a military despot 
lording it over Europe, and that England was battling 
for the freedom of America as well as of Europe. 
These people, with the Republicans opposed to the war 
who had put up De Witt Clinton of New York, 
came near winning the election in 181 2. Congress, 
after a hard fight, declared war by a small majority. ^-^ No 
sooner had war been declared 
than the news came that 
England was taking steps 
to patch up the difficulty. 

The United States was far 
from being united in the war. 
A peace-loving president had 
been rushed into war, and 
the United States was not 
prepared. The Republicans 
had cut down both the army 
and navy (§297) and had 
done little toward getting 
ready. We had an army 
of about sixty-five hundred 
men and a navy of twenty 
fighting ships. England had 
nearly a thousand warships. Fortunately for us most of 
them had to be kept near home. Her army was large. 




JAMES MADISON 



199 



200 



THE WAR OF 1812 



313. Why Americans won in the West. The West 
was enthusiastic for the war. Before war was declared 




PERRY AT THE BATTLE OF LAKE ERIE 



western men, led by General Harrison, defeated the 
Indians at the Battle of Tippecanoe (181 1). General 
Hull, surrendering his army, was a victim to Canadian 
dash and Indian cunning at Detroit. All the Northwest 
was now open. The people feared the Indian tomahawk 
and scalping knife. They called loudly for Harrison to 
recover Ohio and Michigan. 

While Harrison was gathering his forces for the invasion 
of Canada, young Captain Oliver H. Perry built a fleet 
out of green timber and completely defeated the British 
ships at Put-in-Bay on Lake Erie (18 13). After the 
battle Perry wrote his famous dispatch to Harrison : 
'We have met the enemy and they are ours; two ships, 
two brigs, one schooner, and one sloop." 

General Harrison was now ready. The British and 
the Indians under Tecumseh burned Detroit and retreated 



202 THE WAR OF 1812 

the powder-stained faces of the gunners, all helped to 
make an awful scene. 

As the two vessels parted, the rest of the "Guerriere's" 
masts fell. With great holes torn in her sides, she lay a 
helpless wreck, and soon struck her flag. "It took but 
half an hour, but in that half hour the United States rose 
to the rank of a first class naval power." 

315. Other sea victories. Soon after, the "Consti- 
tution" captured another British frigate and was honored 
with the title of "Old Ironsides," although only a wooden 
vessel. 

The warship, the "United States," captured her equal in 
rank, the "Macedonian." A number of smaller vessels 
won signal victories over small British ships. One of the 
most brilliant voyages was made into the Pacific by David 
Porter in the frigate "Essex." He captured more than 
he could care for. On board the "Essex" was young 
Farragut, a future naval hero (§464). 

On Lake Champlain Captain McDonough, with his 
little fleet of thirteen ships, forced every British ship in 
a fleet of sixteen to strike its colors (18 14). This was the 
only clear-cut victory in the East. 

England had been mistress of the sea for so long that 
she could not believe the news of these defeats. She 
turned her great warships toward America and soon wore 
out our little navy. 

But she could not reach all our privateers (§220). They 
swarmed in every sea, capturing British merchant ships. 
They took over two thousand of them. British ship- 
owners were very anxious for peace. 

316. Victories were few in the North. The people 
in the middle and New England states were anything 
but enthusiastic over the war. Besides, many of the 



A WAR FOR FREEDOM OF COMMERCE 



203 



officers were hardly fitted for the hard campaigning 
against Canada. 

The expedition against Queenstown Heights and the 
campaign to capture Montreal were both failures. 
Better fighting was done at Chippewa and Lundy's 
Lane, but our army was compelled to retreat (18 14). 

317. Expedition against Washington and Baltimore 
(1814). A British expedition captured Washington and 




Hull 

Harrison 



CAMPAIGNS IN THE NORTH AND 
EAST, WAR OF l8l2 



burned the capitol in return for a like act by Americans, 
the burning of the capitol at Toronto. Both deeds were 
unsoldierlike. The British force then turned on Baltimore, 
hated because of its scores of privateers. The attack was 
beaten off. Francis Scott Key, detained on a British ship. 



204 



THE WAR OF 1812 



wrote the stirring words of the "Star-Spangled Banner," 
when he caught sight of the flag still flying over Fort 
McHenry. 

318. General Jackson wins New Orleans (181 5). 

Jackson had already made himself famous by defeating 
the Indians. He was commanding western troops who, 
Hke their fathers in the Revolution, were sharpshooters. 
He gathered six thousand men at New Orleans. From 
behind breastworks he faced Pakenham's ten thousand 
veterans fresh from European battlefields. The battle 
lasted twenty-five minutes. The British lost twenty-six 
hundred; the Americans had eight killed and thirteen 

wounded. This 
victory blotted 
out many sore 
failures. 

This battle 
would never 
have occurred 
if the cable 
had been laid, 
for the treaty 
of peace had 
already been 
signed at Ghent 
in Belgium. 
319. The 

Hartford Convention (1814). From the beginning we 
have seen New Englanders opposed to the war. Madison 
was suspicious and feared disloyalty. Finally delegates 
from New England met at Hartford to take measures of 
self -protection. The war party declared that this meeting 
was to break up the Union. It must have sounded strange 




JACKSON AT NEW ORLEANS DIRECTING THE DEFENSE 
AGAINST THE BRITISH ASSAULT 



A WAR FOR FREEDOM OF COMMERCE 205 

to Jefferson and Madison to hear New England, once the 
stronghold of the Federalists, talking about States' Rights 
(§286)! But the war soon ended and the opposition 
died out. 

320. The Treaty of Ghent (1814). Napoleon had been 
overthrown in 18 14 only to come back suddenly with 
another army. His final defeat occurred at Waterloo at 
the hands of Wellington (18 15). Napoleon had taught 
the world many new things about war, but he had used 
up much of the manhood of Europe in doing it. 

The prospect of peace in Europe probably showed the 
way when American commissioners met the British. 
They did not settle any of the questions that caused 
the war. These for the most part had been settled by 
the ending of the war in Europe. 

The Americans and the British were glad the war was 
over. Their merchants had suffered from privateers and 
from blockades, and taxes had been piled high. The 
American seaman now stood higher in the estimation of 
Englishmen than before. 

321. A hundred years of peace. '^^ From 1815 to the 
present there has been peace between the two great 
English-speaking nations. The Rush-Bagot Treaty 
(181 7) declared that along our Canadian boundary no 
big forts should frown, and that no warships should sail 
on lake or ri^er. But along this line of 4,000 miles the 
Canadian and the American peoples meet in mutual 
friendship. Differences have arisen, but the solid sense 
of the two nations has always found a happy way of 
settling these disputes. 

322. The immediate results of the war. (i) A stronger 
national sentiment had grown up. We were proud of 
our navy and of men like Jackson and Harrison. The 



2o6 THE WAR OF 1812 

Federalist party soon died out. In 181 6 it had thirty- 
four electoral votes, and in 1820, not one. (2) Dare the 
Republicans recharter Hamilton's bank (§285) P^^* Con- 
gress passed the bill, making a bank over three times 
as large as Hamilton's. (3) The first tariff had given pro- 
tection to American manufacturers (§285). The Embargo 
and the war gave more by cutting off European goods. 
After peace foreign goods rushed in. Americans bought 
them because they were cheap. (The manufacturers called 
for protection. Congress debated. Daniel Webster was 
against protection and John C. Calhoun for it. The 
bill was passed, and America became more independent 
of Europe. 

SUGGESTED READINGS 

References for teachers: Hart, Patriots and Statesmen, III, 197-319; 
Babcock, Rise of American Nationality, chaps, v-xi; Roosevelt, Naval 
War of 1812; Bassett, Short History, chap. xv. 

References for pupils: Hart, Source Book, 218-225; Great Epochs 
in American History, V, 1 1-41 , 79-89 ; TomHnson, Boy Soldiers of 181 2. 

Fiction: Barnes, Loyal Traitors; Brady, For the Freedom of the Seas. 

PROBLEMS AND PROJECTS 

I. You are a boy in Harrison's army going to the Tippecanoe 
battlefield. Write a letter to your mother back in New York. 2. 
Imagine you are with the "Essex" in the Pacific and meet young 
Farragut. Write all about it in your diary. 



CHAPTER XIV 
THE COMING OF A NEW TIME 

WESTERN MIGRATION AND INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS 

323. The second wave of western migration. The 

flow of people at the close of the War of the Revolution 
brought in the first new states (§303). With peace there 
began a mightier rush to find homes in the West. People 
filled the region between the Allegheny Mountains and 
the Mississippi River, and by 1820 began to occupy the 
states just across the river. They held closely to the 
rivers for homes and for means of getting their crops to 
market. The wooded regions were settled first. There 
seemed to be a feeling against the prairies. 

324. How the western settlers lived. On the frontier 
the settlers lived over again the experiences of colonial days 
(§119). The dense forests had to be cut away to build 
their log houses, and had to be burned to make way for 
their little crops. Often the trees were "girdled" so they 
would die, and corn was planted between the dead trees. 

The people helped each other to put up their houses. 
Neighbors for miles around came to "logrollings."^-^ For 
days the settler and his sons cut down trees and burned 
and chopped them into logs of proper length for rolling. 
On the day chosen the neighbors came. Sometimes the 
two strongest selected their men. The two groups went to 
work to see which could roll the greatest number of logs 
into heaps. There was much rough fun, hard work, and 
plenty to eat. With the logs all burned, the farmer was 
ready to plow. 

207 



2o8 



THE COMING OF A NEW TIME 



Besides raising grain to sup- 
ply his own table, he raised 
enough for his horses, cattle, 
and hogs. The hogs did not 
call for much, for they usually 
got fat on the mast, that is, the 
acorns, hazel and hickory nuts, 
and walnuts. 

325. How the wife's table 
was furnished. The frontier 
farmer's wife usually set her 
table with many kinds of whole- 
some food. Besides the meats 
raised, there were wild meats. 
The favorites were deer and 
turkey. Grapes and berries 
grew everywhere, and if she did 
not live too far south, the house- 
wife could have the best sweet 
of that time, maple sirup. The 
great forests furnished homes 
for bees, and the farmer could 
add honey to his table. Pies 
from pumpkin and blackberries 
were plentiful. 

326. The demand for internal 
improvements. The country 
was scarcely settled before the 
farmers began to call for better 
roads, improved water-ways, 
and for canals. They wanted 

to sell some of their land, and villages and towns 
expected to grow into larger places if they could count 




HOW SETTLERS MOVED WEST 



WESTERN MIGRATION AND IMPROVEMENTS 



2og 



upon a regular stream of incoming settlers. Very soon 
Henry Cla^;, with persuasive voice, was calling the atten- 
tion of Congress and of the country to his "American 
System." This included internal improvements, a pro- 
tective tariff, and a United States bank. 

327. The steamboat, "Fulton's Folly" (1807). Experi- 
ments in building steamboats had been made on different 
rivers (§281).*^® Fulton, on the Hudson, had been most 
successful. After studying boats and engines in Europe 
he came home and built the "Clermont." 

Full of hope, a crowd gathered on the day for sailing. 
The boat moved from her place and stopped. Some 
shook their heads and said, "I told you so!" Fulton 
went below and fixed the machinery. The boat moved 
out and on to Albany, a distance of 150 miles, in thirty- 
two hours. The "Clermont" had a sail as a help, but 
depended mostly on an engine fastened to a pair of side 
wheels. 

Steamboats quickly appeared on the rivers in the east- 
ern states, and soon one was built at Pittsburgh (181 1) 
for the Ohio 
River trade. 
Another car- 
ried supplies 
to General 
Jackson at 
New Orleans 
(1814). A 
year had not 
gone by be- 
fore a steam- 
boat was making its way from New Orleans, laden with 
goods from Europe, to the frontier town of Louisville 




THE CLERMONT STEAMING TO .■\LB.\NY 



2IO THE COMING OF A NEW TIME 

(§298). This roused the merchants of the East who 
feared the loss of their trade. They at once demanded a 
protective tariff and better roads to the West. 

328. A race between New Orleans and the eastern 
cities. Before the steamboat came, there was a race 
between New Orleans and the cities of the East for west- 
ern trade. The raft arid the fiatboat carried the heavy 
products to New Orleans, but the lighter things were 
carried on pack horses over the mountains to Philadelphia 
and Baltimore. So, too, great droves of hogs and cattle, 
fattened in the woods of the West, were driven to eastern 
cities. But the eastern merchants found it hard, slow 
work to send their clothes, hardware, and wooden articles 
over the mountains. When the steamboat came. New 
Orleans was far in the lead. Cincinnati sent her pork, 
Louisville her tobacco and hemp, and St. Louis her furs, 
to New Orleans. The value of the trade sent down the 
Ohio and Mississippi in 18 10 was over $8,000,000. 

329. The Cumberland or National Road. But the East 
had long been up and doing. Both Washington and 
Jefferson had recommended a roadway over the moun- 
tains. In 1806 the Cumberland turnpike was begun by 
Congress. This ran from Cumberland, Maryland, over 
the mountains to Wheeling on the Ohio. When finished, 
it was a smooth road 80 feet wide, with markers each 
quarter of a mile. It climbed the rocky sides of moun- 
tains, crossed wide chasms, and bridged large streams by 
great culverts made of stone. Along its winding way 
great crowds could be seen. There were emigrant wagons, 
pack horses, and men and women driving a cow, a few 
sheep or hogs to the western home. Coming eastward one 
saw droves of fat cattle and hogs for the eastern markets. 
Now and then one met a dashing stagecoach filled with 



WESTERN MIGRATION AND IMPROVEMENTS 21 1 

passengers; the horses were changed before the coach 
stopped rocking or the passengers had time to view the 
scenery. It took just twenty-four hours to make the 
trip from Cumberland to Wheeling, from the Potomac 
to the Ohio. This was rapid travel for that day. 







SETTLERS MOVING WEST ALONG THE CUMBERLAND ROAD 

In 1820 Congress, stirred by the eloquent Clay, sur- 
veyed this road from Wheeling to St. Louis. It was 
called the National Road. In time it was built as far as 
Vandalia, Illinois. 

330. Early canals. The people of the older states were 
alive to the use of canals. Just after the Revolution 
Washington saw how western trade might be turned east- 
ward by a canal joining Chesapeake Bay and the Ohio. 
Virginia and North Carolina very early built the Dismal 
Swamp Canal. The Boston and Middlesex Canal was 
finished in 1803. Many canals were planned for New 



212 



THE COMING OP A NEW TIME 




TRAVEL ON THE ERIE CANAL IN 182$ 



England and the middle states, but none were built until 
after the War of 1812. Then work began in earnest. 

331. The Erie 
Canal. Soon after 
the war Congress 
refused to spend 
money on canals. 
The states took up 
the problem. Work 
on the Erie Canal 
was begun in 181 7. 
People said it could 
not be built; but 
De Witt CHnton, 
governor of New York, stood staunchly in favor of it, 
and the canal was finished in 1825. Fun was poked at 
it as "Clinton's Big Ditch." It crossed swamps, rivers, 
and hills, and when finished was 363 miles long, 40 feet 
wide, and 4 feet deep. 

Governor Clinton and other leading men, with a 
"fleet" of canal boats, began a triumphal voyage from 
Lake Erie to the Atlantic. Celebrations occurred at all 
the important towns, and wherever a road crossed the 
canal the country folk gathered to witness the strange 
voyage in boats through .the land. On November 4, 
with bells ringing and cannon booming and surrounded 
by a large fleet, Clinton emptied kegs of water from Lake 
Erie into the ocean to signify that the Great Lakes and 
the Atlantic were forever united (1825). 

332. The effects of the Erie Canal. The canal paid for 
itself in ten years, and its immediate effects were far- 
reaching. Along its way thriving cities grew up : Buffalo, 
Rochester, Syracuse, Utica, Schenectady, Troy, and 



WESTERN MIGRATION AND IMPROVEMENTS 213 

Albany. 12^ The cost of freight was reduced to one-tenth 
its former cost. The result was that the canal became 
a great highway between the East and West. Even 
European goods could reach the towns of northern Ohio 
and Indiana by way of the canal and the Great Lakes. 
New York City won the advantage over all rivals and 
has become the greatest city of the United States. 

The remote effects of the Erie Canal have been as far- 
reaching. Pennsylvania took up the plan of building a 
canal from Philadelphia to Pittsburgh, with a portage 
railroad to help in getting over the mountains. The 
Chesapeake and Ohio Canal joined Washington City to 
the Cumberland Road. Baltimore was successful in 
pushing the plan for a railroad. 

Of the new states, Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois were 
the most active canal builders. The most important 
canals ran from Cleveland south through Columbus to 
Portsmouth on the Ohio. From Toledo another canal 
ran to Fort Wayne and through Terre Haute to the Ohio. 




gpgp^Bi^^S 







L 



THE FIRST TRAIN OVER THE PENNSYLVANIA RAILROAD IN 183S 

333. The beginning of railroads. The successful rival 
of the canal was already here. But the railroad did not 
promise much at first. The rails were wooden or were 
strapped with iron, and the cars looked like huge stage- 
coaches. On the first road the cars were drawn by horses. 
Massachusetts planned a road from Boston to Albany 



214 THE COMING OF A NEW TIME 

to connect with the Erie Canal (1827). The next year 
work was begun on the Baltimore and Ohio railroad, the 
first long railroad in America. A great ceremony took 
place. Charles Carroll of Carrollton, aged ninety-three, 
the only living signer of the Declaration of Independence, 
said, as he drove the spade into the ground : "I consider 
this among the most important acts of my life, second only 
to that of signing the Declaration of Independence." 

Peter Cooper built one of the first locomotives. To 
prove its usefulness it ran a race with a horse car. The 
horse won because the engine slipped a pulley. But it 
was plain that the locomotive could go faster and not get 
tired. Short lines of railroad were soon built in various 
parts of the country. 

THE OLD STATES FEEL THE TOUCH OF LIFE 

334. Old parts of the country move forward. In our 

enthusiasm over the new and growing West we must not 
forget that the East, too, had its problems to solve. Every 
region, old as well as new, felt the touch of new energy 
after the War of 181 2. The old states made improve- 
ments in their ways of living. New roads were built, 
canals were dug for trade and travel, and machinery 
for spinning and weaving was improved. These states 
were trying to keep their people from moving to the great 
West. One result of the westward movement was to 
make labor scarce and wages higher in the East. 

335. What the older parts did. The increase in the 
number of families called for more houses and barns. 
This created a demand for more lumber and more car- 
penters. The houses still were heated by wood burned 
in the great fireplaces (§121). Besides wood, the forests 
were furnishing timber for fences and shipbuilding. In 



OLD STAT£S FEEL THE TOUCH OF LIFE 



215 







~:e^ 



THE OLD W^ILR SAWMILL 



every state a large number of small sawmills were slowly 
cutting away the giant forests. 

Mines in several regions were turning out iron to make 
the machinery for use in mills and factories. Iron ore 
was smelted mostly by charcoal fires, but coal was begin- 
ning to be used in 
Pennsylvania. Run- 
ning water was still 
the cheapest kind of 
power, and turned 
the wheels in mill and 
factory. Steam was 
not yet widely used. 
Hence wherever a saw- 
mill or gristmill or factory was found along streams, 
large dams were built to furnish a strong flow of water. 
These dams were great fishing grounds for folks, young 
and old, on holidays or when the people waited their 
turn at the mill.^-'^ 

336. What these changes meant politically. The men 
engaged in manufacturing goods joined the West in 
calling for internal improvements and a protective 
tariff. So also did the merchants selling goods to western 
states who wished the young republic made independent 
of Europe. These men joined their political fortunes to 
"Young Harry of the West," as they called Henry Clay. 

Not all of the people of the older states favored internal 
improvements and a protective tariff. Some agreed with 
the Democrats that the states should build their own roads 
and canals. Hundreds of shipowners at first opposed 
the protective tariff. Their ships carried goods to Europe 
and Asia and did not always find it easy to get a return 
cargo, especially if they had to pay a high tariff. on the 



2l6 



THE COMING OP A NEW TIME 



goods brought back. The cotton raisers, too, opposed 
the tariff. They wished to sell their product to foreign 
nations. Foreign merchants wanted to trade their 
manufactured goods for cotton. But the tariff forced 
the cotton raiser to pay a higher price for such goods. 

NEW STATES INTRODUCE NEW QUESTIONS 

337. Population of the West from 1800 to 1830. At 

the close of the War of 181 2 there were 1,600,000 people 
living in the West (18 15). Northwest of the Ohio there 
were over 700,000 (1820), and southward, if we include 
Kentucky and Tennessee, the population was much 
larger. People came to the "Old Northwest" in two 

streams: one from 

MS 



the east occupying 
the northern parts 
of Ohio, Indiana, 
Illinois, and even 
Missouri ; the other 
from the South, 
occupying the 
southern portions 
of these states. Five 
states were carved 
out of this region. 
338. Louisiana, 
the first state in 
Jefferson's pur- 
chase (1812). Be- 
fore Louisiana 
came into the 

Union, the flags of three nations had flown over her soil. 

Her great city, New Orleans, contained over 17,000 people 




AN OLD FRENCH COURTYARD, NEW ORLEANS 



NEW STATES INTRODUCE NEW QUESTIONS 217 

in 1 810. More than half of its inhabitants were French. 
They lived in their own "quarter" and spent a happy, 
jolly life. They were called "Creoles." Jackson made 
the city famous by defeating there some of Wellington's 
veterans (§318). Louisiana is a sugar-producing state. 

339. Indiana, the Hoosier state (1816). The first 
European on Indiana's soil was probably a Frenchman. 
The French won the hearts of the Indians and built Fort 
Vincennes. Indiana fell to the British (i 763) and was won 
for the Stars and Stripes by Clark and his backwoods- 
men (1779). As a territory in 1800 it included Illinois, 
Michigan, and Wisconsin. General Harrison defeated 
the Indians at Tippecanoe (181 1). From the great tide of 
immigration to the West after the War of 181 2, Indiana 
received her share of the people hunting homes. Between 
1 8 10 and 1820 the population grew from 24,500 to over 
147,000. For fourteen years Abraham Lincoln made 
Indiana his home (1816-30). Oliver P. Morton was her 
great war governor (1861-65), and James Whitcomb Riley, 
the sweet singer, lived and died within her borders. 

340. Mississippi, the home of Jefferson Davis (1817). 
De Soto discovered the region now known as Mississippi 
for Spain (1539), but La Salle won it for France (1682). 
While it was in the possession of France, Tonty, the friend 
of La Salle, made the first settlement at Natchez (1690). 
The region fell to Great Britain (1763), but was given to 
the United States at the close of the Revolution (1783). 
In 1804 Mississippi Territory, including Alabama, was 
set off, and in 181 7 Mississippi became a state. The 
population grew from 75,000 in 1820 to 136,000 in 1830. 
The siege of Vicksburg was the greatest event of its kind 
in the Civil War. Jefferson Davis, though born in 
Kentucky, lived most of his life in Mississippi. 



2l8 



THE COMING OF A NEW TIME 



341. Illinois the home of Lincoln and Douglas (1818). 

For ages the children of the red man had paddled up and 
down the prairie streams of Illinois. The French were 
the friends of the Illini tribe, and La Salle built Fort St, 
Louis at Starved Rock for them. 

Clark made easy conquest of Kaskaskia and Cahokia. 
The first capital of Illinois was Kaskaskia. After the 
rush of people to the state, it was removed to Vandalia. 
Finally, by Lincoln's aid, Springfield secured it (1836). 
Lincoln and Douglas were early political rivals. Their 
joint debates over slavery (§283) drew the attention of 
the whole country. Chicago, now the second city of the 
nation, a frontier fort in 1803, was burned in 181 2 and 
rebuilt in 1815. In i860 its people numbered more than 
one hundred thousand. General Ulysses S. Grant, an 
adopted son of the state, was the favorite northern 
commander in the Civil War. 

342. Alabama, the first home of the Confederacy 
(1819). Alabama was a favorite region with the Indian. 




"'"ift-aX. 





:^.~ 



^V<i\1\\»*^^,' - 



FORT DEARBORN, CHIC^CO, Ab A FROMILR PObT 

The first French capital was Mobile, settled in 1702. 
This country fell to Great Britain in 1763 and to the 



NEW STATES INTRODUCE NEW QUESTIONS 219 



United States in 1783. The territory of Alabama was 
set off in 181 7 and became a state two years later. By 
1820 the people numbered 128,000 and in 1830 had in- 
creased to 309,500. The 
ablest and most fiery orator 
of the South just before the 
opening of the Civil War 
was W. L. Yancey of Ala- 
bama. Montgomery was 
called the "Cradle of the 
Confederacy." 

343. Maine, the last of 
the New England states 
(1820). We have seen 
Maine granted to Gorges 
and Mason (§79), and its 
union with Massachusetts 
(1652). When we won our 
independence, Maine was still a part of the older 
colony. For a long period it was a sort of frontier to the 
New England states. By consent of Massachusetts, 
Maine was put forward as a rival to Missouri for admission 
to the Union. Maine quarreled with New Brunswick 
over her boundary line. Webster made a treaty with 
England and settled the trouble. Maine, among the 
early states, has been the one to hold firm to prohibition 
of the liquor traffic (1851). 

344. Missouri, the home of General Pershing (182 1). 
Missouri was the second child of the Louisiana Purchase. 
France gave it to Spain (1763), and it was returned to 
France by a secret treaty (1800). Missouri Territory 
was marked out when it had 20,000 people (18 12). 
Later, people from the South came here with their slaves 




WILLIAM LOWNDES YANCEY 



THE COMING OF A NEW TIME 



because much of the soil was fine tobacco land. Missouri 
with its 60,000 people asked for admission to the Union 








^%Y' - "'^ ^\^ 







ST. LOUIS IN 1840 



(18 1 9). The quarrel over the Missouri Compromise 
kept it out until 1821. St. Louis, the largest city of the 
Louisiana Purchase, was settled in 1764. 

As a center for the fur trade St. Louis has held first 
place for a long time. It welcomed the world to its doors 
to witness the Louisiana Purchase Exposition (1904). 
Missouri is the home state of General Pershing, who was 
born at Laclede. 

345. The race between free and slave states. The 
cotton gin had given a new meaning to slavery (§278). 
A contest arose to keep equal the number of free and slave 
states coming into the Union. After Louisiana entered 
there were nine of each, and their votes in the Senate 
were equal (§251). Then followed Indiana, a free state, 
and Mississippi, a slave state. Illinois was free and 
Alabama slave. But when Missouri asked to come in 
(§344) before Maine, the North objected. Both Congress 
and the people now debated the question. 



LATIN AMERICA AND THE MONROE DOCTRINE 221 



346. The Missouri Compromise. Congress refused to 
admit one state without the other. For more than a 
year the question was before the people. They became 
very much excited. Jefferson declared: "It sounded 
like a fire bell in the night." Henry Clay and others 
brought about a compromise: (i) Maine was admitted 
as a free state; (2) Missouri came in as a slave state; 
and (3) slavery was forbidden in the Louisiana Purchase 
north of the southern boundary of Missouri, or the line 
of36°3o'. The excitement soon died down. 

LATIN AMERICA AND THE MONROE DOCTRINE 

347. Spain's trouble with her colonies. We have seen 
Spain get a foothold in North America, in Mexico, in 
Florida, and west of the Rocky Mountains (§19). She 
lost Louisiana to Napoleon and was forced to sell Florida 
to the United States. But she still held sway in Central 
and South America, except in 
Brazil and in Guiana. 

Spain fell under Napoleon's 
power, and her colonies were 
left to shift for themselves. 
They opened trade with both 
England and the United States. 
After Napoleon's power was 
gone, a weak despotic king ruled 
Spain. When Spanish colonies 
demanded more rights, they 
were denied. One by one they 
rebelled and set up independent 
governments. 

348. Heroic struggle of Spamsh-America (1816-22). 
Spain made a desperate effort to hold her colonies. 







SIMON BOLIVAR 



222 THE COMING OF A NEW TIME 

Two men stand out as heroes in the struggle for inde- 
pendence : San Martin in the La Plata region and Simon 
Bolivar, who has been called the "Washington of South 
America," in Venezuela and Colombia. The American 
people sympathized with the South Americans. Henry- 
Clay, warm-hearted and enthusiastic, roused Congress to 
recognize their independence.^-" In the meantime Mexico 
and Central America, too, threw off the Spanish yoke. 
How are the mighty fallen ! Only Cuba and Porto Rico 
left of all that vast empire in America! 

349. The Holy Alliance. European rulers after the 
time of Napoleon formed what has been named the 
"Holy Alliance." Its purpose was to keep down revolu- 
tions by the people and to suppress men like Napoleon. 
This Holy Alliance had a black record. It had already 
put down revolts in Italy and Spain and had put the bad 
rulers back on their thrones. Now Spain asked its help 
to get back her colonies. Russia, Prussia, and Austria 
were members, but England had refused to join. Her 
people sympathized with the Spanish colonies. Besides, 
she did not wish to lose her growing trade with them. 
England, therefore, asked the United States to join in 
protesting against the effort to reconquer these states for 
Spain. John Quincy Adams, ^^^ Monroe's secretary of 
state, advised against uniting with England in such a 
protest, but urged President Monroe to make his own 
statement. 

350. The Monroe Doctrine. The Declaration of Inde- 
pendence, the Proclamation of Neutrality (§288), the 
War of 181 2, all point to the fact that America plans to 
work out her own experiments in republican government, 
and that she will not permit any nation to hinder her in 
making them. Hence President Monroe, urged by his 



THE WEST BEGINS TO INFLUENCE POLITICS 



223 






secretary of state, sent forth to the world this declara- 
tion: (i) The American continents have assumed a free 
and independent position, and 
are not to be open to future colo- 
nization. (:2) We have recognized 
the independence of the Spanish- 
American republics, and must 
look upon any act "for the pur- 
pose of oppressing them or con- 
trolling in any other manner their 
destiny" as an unfriendly act 
toward the United States. 

The immediate effect was to 
keep the peace. The Holy Alliance 
did not aid Spain, and no other 
nation has since tried to colonize any territory in the two 
Americas. With the exception of Maximilian in Mexico, 
the Monroe Doctrine has kept out foreign nations and 
has given the nations to the south of us time to get 
on their feet. 

The meaning of England's offer to share the burden of 
such a declaration shows how quickly old feelings arising 
out of the War of 181 2 were passing away. But the 
best proof of this is seen in the hundred years of peace 
celebrated in 191 5 between Canada and the United 
States. What an example this ought to be to Europe! 




JAMES MONROE 



THE WEST BEGINS TO INFLUENCE POLITICS 

351. Monroe, president (1817-23). The era of good 
feeling. When Monroe came up for reelection (1822), 
only one electoral vote was cast against him.^^^ The 
Federalist party was dead. With its people united, the 
nation from 181 5 to 1840 was springing forward with 



224 



THE COMING OF A NEW TIME 



renewed life. We have already seen some of its great 
strides (§§327, 329-333). 

One reason for this rapid growth was the fact that the 
whole nation had forgotten its party quarrels. The 
people looked upon President Monroe in his last term as 
bringing in an "era of good feeling. "122 

352. The common man gains more influence. We 
have seen the influence of the common man increasing 
from colonial days (§107). The new states, as they 
came into the Union, gave all men the right to vote. The 
old states had to give all the vote to keep men from 
leaving for the new states. This made the nation 
more democratic. The result was a cry against the cus- 
tom of having Congress nominate the president. This 
custom had arisen in John Adams' term because no 
other seemed so natural. But now it was called ' ' undemo- 
cratic" (1824), The state legis- 
latures made the nomination until 
a still more democratic way was 
found in the national nominating 
convention (1832). 

353. John Quincy Adams, presi- 
dent (1825-29). The election of 
John Quincy Adams was famous 
because all candidates belonged 
to the Republican or Democratic- 
Republican party. They were 
Adams, Jackson, Crawford, and 
Clay. Calhoun was elected vice- 
president . No man had a ma j ority 
of the electoral votes, and the 
election went to the House of Representatives (Art. II, 
§1, ^3). The race was between Adams, an eastern man. 




JOHN QUINCY ADAMS 



THE WEST BEGINS TO INFLUENCE POLITICS 225 



and Jackson, a western man. Henry Clay, opposed to 
a military hero for president, threw his influence for 



Adams, and he 
was elected. 
Adams then 
selected Clay 
for his secre- 
tary of state. 

The Jackson ^^^^^ 
men were f uri- ^ ^ 
ous. Clay's -r^^'^ 
influence, they 
declared, had 
been bought. 















THE LOG C^BI^I IN WHICH ANDREW J\CkSON W\S BORN 



No proof of this charge was ever discovered, but the 
slander followed Clay all his life. The friends of Jackson 
found fault with every measure that Adams and Clay 
favored. They favored high protective tariffs, internal 
improvements, and friendship with South America. 

354. A new kind of candidate and a new campaign. 
Jackson's men had begun to hurrah for him three 
years before the election. He was nominated at first 
by western legislatures (§352). They declared he was 
born on the frontier, had known poverty, had fought 
the Indians, and had defeated the British. Now he 
was going to defeat the politicians and put the people 
in power. 

Jackson was a fine-looking man. He was every inch a 
soldier, tall and straight. He seemed to look men 
through with his "eagle eye." Jackson dearly loved a 
quarrel and even fought duels. He was very polite in the 
presence of ladies. No man had warmer friends or more 
bitter enemies. Two of Jackson's most famous friends 
9 



226 



THE COMING OF A NEW TIME 



were Martin Van Buren, a New York politician, who 
followed him as president, and Thomas H. Benton, a 
senator from Missouri with whom he once fought a duel. 

355* Jackson at New Orleans again. Jackson poHti- 
cians introduced the custom of showing their candidate 
to the people. Other candidates had been too dignified. 
But the people needed only to see warm-hearted and 
enthusiastic Andrew Jackson to admire him. 

The anniversary of his great victory was the time 
chosen (January 8, 1828) (§318). From Tennessee to 
New Orleans his journey was a triumphal procession. A 
committee came up the Mississippi River to Natchez to 
greet him. 

The boats then dropped down the river to New 
Orleans. Near the city the river was packed with boats 
filled with people. The housetops and the river banks 




A CO^L^IITTEE OF CITIZENS BIDS JACKSON WELCOME 



were crowded. Visitors from far-away New York had 
come to bring him the good-will of that state. Veterans 



THE WEST BEGINS TO INFLUENCE POLITICS 227 




ANDREW JACKSON 



who had stood with Jackson when the British charged 
came to greet the great commander (§318). The ringing 
of bells, the booming of cannon, 
and the waves of human hurrahs 
were overpowering. For four 
days the celebration went on. 

There could be only one result 
from this kind of camjDaign- 
ing, Jackson's overwhelming 
majority. 

356. How the people acted at 
the inauguration. The spoils of 
office. The people came in great 
crowds to see their hero take 
office. They felt that his elec- 
tion had somehow saved the 
nation from a great danger. 
White House, and in their mad rush to see the President, 
they clambered upon the furniture with their muddy 
boots, and spilled the pails of drink brought for their 
enjoyment. Some peojjle — politicians and editors of 
Jackson newspapers — came for less patriotic reasons. 
They came to get office. In one year Jackson dismissed 
from office over seven hundred men, some of whom had 
been appointed by Washington. 

Only one good result flowed from the spoils system. It 
gave the common man a deeper interest in national 
politics. From this time forward, "rotation in office" 
became the rule until long after the Civil War. 

357- Jackson, the fighting president. From the day 
Jackson took office for eight years there' was a constant 
battle. He fought Clay, Calhoun, Webster, and other 
statesmen; he carried on a long struggle with the United 



They pushed into the 



228 



THE COMING OF A NEW TIME 



States bank; he fought nuUification by South CaroHna; 
he fought the speculators; he went into the arena of 
social life and opposed people who refused to do as he did 
in social matters. Jackson was a fighter in the presidency 
as well as on the field of battle. He stirred up so much 
opposition that he was nicknamed "King Andrew I," 
but the Whigs could not defeat him. 

358. New parties and nominating conventions. From 
1S03 to 1823 the Republican party was splitting (§353). 
This party was formed to oppose the use of strong national 
measures, but no one can fail to see in the Louisiana 
Purchase, the Embargo, the War of 181 2, the restoration 
of Hamilton's bank, and in the protective tariff the use of 
strong national powers. 

John Quincy Adams, Henry Clay, and Daniel Webster 

gradually took up the idea of 
the nation using great power. 
They called themselves National 
Republicans and claimed to be 
true followers of Jefferson. 

The National Republicans 
first met in national convention 
in Baltimore and nominated 
their favorite, Henry Clay. He 
was badly defeated by Jackson 
in 1832. The other portion of 
Jefferson's party began to call 
themselves Democrats. They, 
too, held a national nominating 
convention and put up Jackson 
and Van Buren , 
The name Whig took the place of National Republican, 
and all sorts of men gathered under this historic name in 




HENRY CLAY 



THE WEST BEGINS TO INFLUENCE POLITICS 229 

opposition to ' ' King Andrew. ' ' Clay was the party ' s most 
beloved leader. He was three times a candidate for presi- 
dent, but he could not win. Another leader was Webster, 
the man of greatest eloquence in his time, who died wanting 
to be president but was not even nominated. Calhoun, 
the deep thinker, though not a Whig, supported the 
.opposition to Jackson for a time. But Calhoun could 
never "pull in party harness." 

359. Jackson believes the bank an enemy of the people. 
Jackson was fully convinced that the bank made the rich 
richer and the poor poorer. He therefore opposed its 
recharter. Henry Clay, the friend of the bank, made 
the granting of a new charter a question in the campaign 
of 1832. Jackson easily won the election and declared 
that by their votes the people had commanded him to 
destroy the bank. He took all United States money 
out of it, and it died before its old charter ran out."^ 

360. Pet banks and the panic of 1837. With the 
United States bank gone, state banks came flocking back. 
These banks seemed to be more democratic. Certain 
of them were called "pet banks" because the govern- 
ment favored them by putting its money in them. 
Jackson, it was said, favored their making it easy for the 
people to borrow money. These banks did this by 
putting out vast sums of "paper money," wdiich were 
promises to pay when the bank had real money. 

Everybody was borrowing money to speculate in public 
lands. The government sold lands at $1.25 per acre. 
Speculators bought and sold again at a higher price. 
"The thing was easy." Towns, cities, and states were 
borrowing money. 

But the crisis soon came. The paper money of the 
banks was pouring into the United States treasury. 



230 



THE COMING OF A NEW TIME 



Much of it was not worth fifty cents on the dollar. Some- 
thing must be done. Jackson acted quickly. He sent 
forth his "Specie Circular" demanding that only gold 
and silver be paid to the government. Enough gold and 
silver could not be had. Banks, pet banks and all, went 
down. Business houses were ruined, and factories closed 
their doors. Canal and railroad building stopped, and 
thousands of laborers were thrown out of work. The 
panic of 1837 was the hardest the United States had seen, 
361. Van Buren, president (1837-41). We have seen 
that Van Buren was a warm supporter of Jackson (§354), 
and he was made secretary of state. Van Buren stood 
faithfully by Jackson in all his ' ' fights. ' ' Jackson resolved 
to make him president. He was elected, but had to bear 

the burden of blame for the 
suffering from the panic of 
1837. The people asked the 
government for help, but 
Van Buren refused it. 

362. The log cabin cam- 
paign (1840). The 1840 cam- 
paign began in 1837, another 
three years' contest (§354). 
Its opening was more exciting 
than that of any Jackson 
campaign. Harrison was 
the candidate of the Whigs. 
He, too, was a western 
hero. He had beaten the 
Indians and defeated the 
British on Canadian soil 
at the battle of the Thames. He was now the plain Ohio 
farmer with his latchstring always out to old soldiers. 




MARTIN VAN BUREN 




POLITICAL PARADE, PRESIDENTIAL CAMPAIGN OF I84O 



232 



THE COMING OF A NEW TIME 




WILLIAM HENRY HARRISON 



Van Buren was the "little aristocrat." He had always 
held office, lived in a "oalace," ridden in a fine carriage; 

while the laborer had been 
without work and the busi- 
ness man a bankrupt. Such 
demonstrations, and proces- 
sions and barbecues ! Never 
had so many great orators 
stirred the people. Webster 
and Clay were at their best. 
The Whigs aroused patriotic 
feeling by meetings held on 
great battlefields. Thousands 
upon thousands gathered at 
Tippecanoe (§313) and at 
Bunker Hill (§195). 

Miniature log cabins with 
the latchstrings out, live raccoons sporting over the roofs, 
and barrels of hard eider with farmers drinking were 
carried on large wagons. Great balls, drawn by horses, 
were rolling on to show how the coming of victory was 
rolling on; catchy songs of "Tippecanoe and Tyler too" 
added interest and aroused enthusiasm. The Democrats 
could not check the tide of victory. It swept Harrison 
into office by over 140,000 majority of the people's vote, 
and with nearly four times as many electoral votes as 
Van Buren had. 

363. The significance of the Whig victory. The West 
had won again. The common man was taking a far 
deeper interest in national life. Henry Clay now talked 
like Jackson ; he said that the people had commanded the 
Whigs to kill certain Democratic measures. But Harrison 
died suddenly after only a few weeks in office. John Tyler 



THE WEST BEGINS TO INFLUENCE POLITICS 233 

became president (Art. II, §1, ^[6). He quarreled with 
the Whig leaders and the Whig program failed (§326). 

364. Old World habits die hard. Events in the East 
showed that the democratic movement was at work 
throwing off Old World notions. In Rhode Island the 
people had outgrown their old charter (§83) and called 
for one giving to all men the right to vote. After Dorr's 
rebellion this new privilege was granted. 

Another old custom went down. The farmers on the 
patroons' estates, tired of paying quitrents (§§86, 118), 
resisted and were granted the right to buy the farms from 
the owners. It took over two hundred years to get rid 
of this custom. Old usages die hard. 

SUGGESTED READINGS 

References for teachers: Wilson, Division and Reunion, 17-92; 
Elson, Side Lights on American History, chaps, viii-x; Hart, Formation 
of the Union, 233-262; Hart, Contemporaries, III, 452-483, 499-501; 
Hart, Patriots and Statesmen, III, 327-383; McMaster, History of the 
American People, V, chap, liii; VI, chaps, liv, Ixv; Bassett, Short 
History, 345-349, 382-426; Morse, John Quincy Adams ("American 
Statesmen Series"), 164-174; Schurz, Life of Henry Clay, I, 221-235; 
II, 1 13-127, 171-197; Coman, Industrial History. 

References for pupils: Hart, Source Book, 226-240; Hart, Patriots 
and Statesmen, III, 192-317; Mace, Stories of Heroism, 225-233; Frost, 
Mill Boy of the Slashes; Wright, Child rens Stories of American Prog- 
ress, 179-194; Hart, Source Reader, II, 99-104; Great Epochs in Ameri- 
can History, V, 133-157, 180-191. 

PROBLEMS AND PROJECTS 

I. Imagine a company of boys and girls on the National Road. 
Write up an account of the journey. 2. Go with Governor De Witt 
Clinton on the canal from Buffalo to New York. Write a sketch of 
the trip. 3. Hold an oral debate on Jackson and Clay as leaders of 
the parties in 1832. 4. Write a sketch of the campaign of 1840 for 
Greeley's Log Cabin Whig paper. 



CHAPTER XV 
SOCIAL CHANGES 

CHANGES IN THE MANNER OF LIVING 

365. Growth of the nation. In 1790 no one dreamed 
of a nation that in fifty years would have increased its 
area over three times and the number of its people nearly 
eight times. In twenty years more we had admitted to 
the Union two states and one territory on the Pacific 
(i860). Then we boasted of over 31,000,000 people in 
thirty-two states and nine territories. Thirty years 
before we had numbered but 13,000,000 people. In 
1790 the North was very little ahead in the race, but by 
i860 she had forged ahead by mighty leaps, counting 
19,000,000 people to 12,000,000 in the South. 

The cities showed a still greater difference: New York 
had jumped from 240,000 (1830) to over 800,000 (i860); 
Philadelphia from 70,000 in 1800 to over 565,000 in i860; 
Cincinnati, St. Louis, and Chicago were running neck 
and neck for first place, with over 100,000 each. Ten 
cities had a population ranging from nearly 100,000 to 
over 500,000 each. Only three were in the South, and 
only one joined the Confederacy. This difference in 
favor of the North was largely due to immigration. In 
1830 only one person in fourteen lived in the city; in i860 
about one in six. In this respect the South had a great 
advantage: the number of her people living in the city 
was very small. 

366. European immigration and its effects. The vast 
majority of our people at the close of the Revolution spoke 
the English language. Befoie 1820 the large majority 

234 



CHANGES IN THE MANNER OF LIVING 235 

joining the two streams to the West were children of this 
old English-speaking stock. 

To Europeans, America had always been a land of prom- 
ise. In the year 1830 twice as many migrated to America 
as in 1820. During the next ten years 500,000 came. 
Between 1850 and i860 in one year 400,000 reached this 
country. 13* Thousands came from Germany to escape 
punishment by the gcTV^ernment for taking part in the 
rebellion to make Germany free (1848). '^s 

Ireland suffered from a potato famine. Nearly a 
million people perished in spite of help sent from other 
countries. Thousands upon thousands of the Irish 
sought homes in America. ^^^ 

367. Where the immigrants went and why. Why did 
the immigrants pour into the North? Because in the 
cities and in the country they could find work. There 
were many occupations, but the South had only a few. 

Germans generally went to the frontier states of Iowa, 
Michigan, Wisconsin, and Missoui"! But the Irish loved 
the cities with their social attractions. 

368. Home life and pastimes on the frontier (1840-60). 
Many changes had come into the home life and pastimes 
on the frontier, owing largely to the progress of the people 
themselves, but partly owing to the inflow of foreigners. 
The Germans emphasized Christmas with small trees 
burdened with lights and gifts. They were also great 
lovers of music, and organized bands which played in the 
country schoolhouses. 

Among English people the frontier pastimes were very 
like those of old colony days (§123). New ones since 
that time were the neighborhood spelling bees and the 
neighborhood debates. When the people of two neigh- 
borhoods met to decide which should win, no place was 



22,6 



SOCIAL CHANGES 




FRONTIER CAMP MEETING 



large enough to hold those who came from miles and 
miles around. Likewise, the frontier camp meeting was 
. , -^ made an occasion 

't'CM^i^'^ :r*., 'j^^ I < for young people 
lipd^f ^° meet and to 
.^\\K vU enjoy themselves. 
,f}< 369. Home life 
'^'^ and pastimes in 
^4^ the older states. 
There had been 
greater changes 
in the home life 
and pastimes of 
the people of the 
older communities than in those of the frontiersmen. The 
mine, the mill, and the factory were the great causes. 
Working families did not do their manufacturing at home 
(§148). They had to go to some great factory. This 
separated children from their parents. If the parents were 
poor or if they were more interested in wages than in the 
education of their children, the young folks also had to 
work long hours in the factory. Sometimes they worked 
in rooms dangerous to their health. With the members 
of families separated, the children grew up unused to the 
careful oversight and the helpful advice of parents. 

Sometimes, when the parents could afford it, the older 
children cared for the younger. These conditions did not 
favor happy and healthful pastimes, such as were enjoyed 
by the better classes in the community. The children 
of factory people, except on Sunday or on a holiday, 
did not enjoy games to the full, such as rowing, swim- 
ming, skating, coasting, wrestling, running, jumping, 
and the various games of ball. These forms of exercise 



FINAL STRUGGLE FOR BALANCE OF POWER 237 

were all fine tests of the muscle of the boys and girls who 
could take part in them. 

THE FINAL STRUGGLE TO KEEP THE BALANCE OF POWER 

370. Arkansas (1836) and Michigan (1837). Arkansas 
was first claimed by Spain. The French settled it. It 
went to Spain (1763) and back to France under Napoleon, 
The Louisi«.na Purchase gave it to the United States. 
Arkansas Territory, including Indian Territory, was set 
up in 1818. In 1836 Arkansas was admitted to the Union 
which she left in 1861. 

Michigan, the Wolverine state, resounded first to the 
Indian war cry. Then came the French missionary and 
fur trader. Father Marquette was one of its early heroes. 
He' founded Sault Ste. Marie (1668). Detroit was settled 
by the French (1701). The treaty of 1763 gave Michigan 
to England, but it became the scene of Pontiac's struggles 
for his hunting grounds. Michigan became a part of the 
United States (1783) and came under the famous Ordi- 
nance of 1787. Michigan was the scene of stirring events 
in the War of 181 2. What Hull lost Harrison won back. 
The University of Michigan was founded in 1837. Senator 
Lewis Cass was among the state's most famous men in 
early days. Detroit, seat of the world's largest automobile 
industry, is the fourth city in size in the United States. 

371. Florida (1845) and Texas (1845). Florida was a 
favorite region for early Spanish explorations. De Leon 
looked for the fountain of youth, and De Soto for gold. 
The history of Florida is set forth in events already noted 
(§§22, 60, 347). Of late years it has become famous as a 
winter resort. 

Texas was visited by La Salle while he was seeking the 
mouth of the Mississippi (§164). The Spaniards claimed 



238 SOCIAL CHANGES 

this region, and the United States surrendered it in 
exchange for Florida. The history of Texas is fully set 
forth elsewhere in this book (§§411-413). 

372. Iowa (1846) and Wisconsin (1848). The balance 
in the Senate, upset by the admission of Florida and 
Texas, was restored by the entrance into the Union of 
Iowa and Wisconsin. 

Iowa, the Hawkeye state, was the home of the Sioux 
•Indians, a great warlike tribe. The Spanish claimed the 
region, and the French did likewise. It was given to 
Spain (1763) and returned to France to satisfy Napoleon. 
He sold Louisiana to Jefferson, and Iowa became a part of 
United States territory (1803). Dubuque had already 
been settled (1788). First a part of Louisiana and of 
several other states, Iowa was set off in 1838 as a territory. 
Immigration flowed in, and the Sioux Indians tried to put 
a stop to it by the massacre at Spirit Lake (1857). Popu- 
lation grew from 19,000 (1850) to 674,000 in i860 — a 
tremendous increase. Kirkwood was Iowa's great war 
governor. Senator Allison served Iowa with distinction 
in the Senate, 1 873-1 908. 

Wisconsin, the Badger state, was a favorite region of 
the red man. Here, too, the French fur trader gathered 
large numbers of pelts, and the missionary early set up 
his altar. Wisconsin goes back to Old Dominion days 
according to the Virginia charter (1609). Virginia turned 
her over, with her sister states, to the Union (1784), and 
she became a part of the Old Northwest (§248). In the 
War of 18 1 2 Canadians and Indians captured Prairie du 
Chien. After the Black Hawk War a large number of 
people came into this region from the eastern states. In 
1836 Wisconsin was made into a territory, but included 
Minnesota, Iowa, and part of the Dakotas. From 1840 



FINAL STRUGGLE FOR BALANCE OF POWER 239 

to i860 Scandinavians and Germans poured in, in large 
numbers. Anti-slavery sentiment was strong and led 
the state supreme court to declare the Fugitive Slave 
Law unconstitutional. In no other state have as many 
German farmers settled. 

373. California (1850), Minnesota (1858), and Oregon 
(1859). These three states broke forever the balance of 
power in the Senate. 

California, the second largest state in the Union, is 
known as the "Golden state." Spaniards from Mexico 
came into this region, built their missions, converted the 
Indians, and taught them useful trades. California fell 
to the United States as a result of the Mexican "War 
(1848). The discovery of gold (1848) drew thousands to 
this region and made a state organization necessary. 
California, therefore, had no territorial government 
(§266). The South hoped to capture the southern part 
of the state by extending the line 36° 30' to the Pacific. 
The population grew from 92,000 in 1850 to 379,000 in 
i860. People soon turned their attention to agriculture 
and fruit raising and found more wealth than in mining. 
In southern California lie the Imperial Valley, one of the 
richest in the world, and Death Valley, a salty, sandy 
region below sea level. Two of the most famous play- 
grounds of the United States are the Yosemite and Sequoia 
parks. Both are national reservations for the people. 

Minnesota, the Gopher state, ran the round of owner- 
ship by the Indians, French, Spanish, French again, and 
finally by the United States. Duluth, a Frenchman, built 
a fort at Pigeon River (1678) and in 1680 Hennepin dis- 
covered the Falls of St. Anthony. Pike saw this region 
in 1805 (§302). Fort St. Anthony was built in 1820, and 
in 1823 the first steamboat came to the Falls. St. Paul 



2 40 SOCIAL CHANGES 

had its beginnings in 1841 in the building of a chapel. 
The territory of Minnesota was organized in 1849, extend- 
ing west to the Missouri River. Minneapolis sprang 
into existence in 1855. Little Crow and his braves, in 
trying to check the rush of settlers, killed eight hundred 
whites. Ramsey was Minnesota's war governor and had 
the honor of offering Lincoln the first troops in the war. 
The Germans and Scandinavians migrated to Minnesota 
in large numbers. From 1850 to i860 the number of her 
people grew from 6,000 to over 172,000. 

"The Oregon Country" was a vast stretch of region 
north of California, west of the Rockies, and extending 
north to Alaska. The Spanish, French, English, the 
Russians, and the Americans claimed this country. Much 
of Oregon's history is told in other places (§§301, 414-18). 
The settlers met (1843), established territorial machinery, 
and managed the government until the United States 
organized a regular territory (1848). It included much 
of Idaho and all of Washington. The people again met, 
framed a constitution, and were admitted to the Union 
(185 1). Oregon's greatest growth in population was 
between 1900 and 1910, when it gained nearly 260,000 
people. Portland, the chief city of Oregon, celebrates 
annually the "Feast of Roses." It is called the Rose 
City. 

374. Mormon migration. Joseph Smith organized the 
Mormon church, or the Church of the Latter Day Saints, 
(1830). He proclaimed to the world that he had received 
revelations from God. A little later the Mormons 
moved from New York to Ohio and then to Missouri. 
Afterward they moved to Illinois (1839). Their religious 
beliefs roused the hatred of their neighbors. Harsh 
treatment followed, and Joseph Smith was shot. 



EDUCATIONAL CHANGES 241 

The Mormons, led by Brigham Young, began a long, 
hard journey westward. They toiled across deserts, over 
the Rocky Mountains, and on until they reached Great 
Salt Lake (1847). Here they began to lay out towns and 
farms. They were pioneers in irrigation in this country 
soon this region blossomed as the rose. 

EDUCATIONAL CHANGES 

375. Progress in the common schools. We saw the 

struggle of the pioneer and his children for an education. 
During the first half of the nineteenth century, especially 
after 1830, great progress had been made. In nearly 
every northern state, systems of common schools had 
been established. At first this meant in the country only 
a few months of school in log schoolhouses, poorly lighted 
and heated, and with poor helps for teacher and pupil. 
The teacher was not required to know much. His prepa- 
ration covered little more than the requirements of the 
school he taught. Even this sort of school marked a 
great advance over the schools of earlier times. 

In the cities changes were greater. There the schools 
were graded and had a superintendent if the city was 
large and progressive enough, and if it could spare the 
money. Textbooks in reading and other subjects had 
long been in use. In many schools the teacher was 
prized if he could set fairly correct copies in a bold 
hand for the children. There are numbers of people 
yet living who used to "sing their geography lessons." 

376. The academy and the high school. The academy 
arose before the Revolution. It was a great improvement 
over the old Latin school (§125). It put more emphasis 
on English studies. After the Revolution academies 
spread rapidly over the country, because they were more 



242 



SOCIAL CHANGES 



democratic than the Latin schools. Still they were not 
supported by taxes. 

To meet the rising tide of democracy a new school 
sprang into existence about 1820. The high school, as 
it came to be called, was supported by taxes and con- 
trolled by the people. It was intended to fit the children 
of rich and poor alike for the daily work of life. 

We should expect the high school to spread rapidly 
westward. The constitution of Indiana (18 16) laid the 
foundation for a complete system of education extending 
from the common schools through the university. But 
nothing was done in this or any other western state for 
a long time. 

377. Men working for better schools. Horace Mann 
of Massachusetts holds high rank among those working 
for better schools. He appealed to the people through 

the newspapers and through 
pamphlets. He went to the 
people, met them in public 
meetings, and reasoned with 
them. He told them that they 
must grant more money for the 
support of schools and for better 
pay for teachers. He urged 
teachers to become better fitted 
to do their work. He saw the 
first normal school established 
in the United States in 1839. 
Henry Barnard, ^^^ of New 
England, worked in much the 
same way. In addition to 
his other work, he pubhshed a Journal of Education, 
the first paper for teachers in the United States. 




HORACE MANN 



EDUCATIONAL CHANGES 



243 



378. The education of woman. In colonial times 
boys and girls went to separate schools. One of our 




t'c?«-««,. 



THE UNIVERSITY OF VIRGINIA AT CHARLOTTESVILLE 



democratic changes was to throw the common schools 
open to girls. The mingling of boys and girls in high 
schools was not common. Some great cities to lead the 
way in this respect were Philadelphia, Cleveland, Chicago, 
Providence, and Indianapolis. 

In the field of higher education woman was slowly 
gaining. As early as 18 14 the Albany Female Academy 
was established. Emma Willard founded the Troy 
Female Academy (182 1), and Mary Lyon followed with 
Mount Holyoke Female Academy (1837), a truly demo- 
cratic school. It required each student to reduce the 
cost of her education by spending part of her time in 
doing household work.^^* The country was surprised 
anew when New Orleans College threw its doors open 
to women on the same terms as to men (1833). Antioch 
College soon followed suit, for Horace Mann was its 
president. 

379. The growth of university education. The colonial 
colleges generally belonged to some religious denomina- 
tion. After the Revolution the Presbyterians, Baptists, 
and Methodists added colleges. But a change in 
university education came when state universities were 



244 



SOCIAL CHANGES 



founded in the new states as well as in some of the older 
ones. Washington was the advocate of a national uni- 
versity and left an estate to found one. • Jefferson, in 
his last days, saw his dream come true irj the University 
of Virginia (1825). The University of Michigan, one of 
the largest of the state schools, was founded in 1837. 
The University of North Carolina is the oldest state 
university (1795). 

THE FIRST SIGNS OF A NATIONAL LITERATURE 

380. The era stirs men to write. Americans before 
the Revolution had done some writing (§270), but now 
for the first time they took American subjects. They 
were stirred by the new life to write. Washington Irving 
(i 783-1859) attracted attention by his quaint fun in 
Knickerbocker s History of New York, by his interesting 
stories in the Sketch Book, and by his charming 

Life of Christopher Columbus. 
James Fenimore Cooper 
(i 789-1 851) in his Spy and in 
other novels was disproving 
Europe's opinion that we had 
no subjects fit for writers. 
Hawthorne (1804-64) kept up 
the reputation of American 
stories by his Twice-Told Tales, 
by the House of Seven Gables, 
and by the Scarlet Letter. 

381. A group of beloved 
poets. William Cullen B ryant 
(i 794-1878) astonished the 
country by writing ' ' Thanatopsis " at the age of seventeen. 
His poems (182 1) contained a lesson of faith in the lines 




BEGINNINGS OF A NATIONAL LITERATURE 245 



"To a Waterfowl." Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803-82), 
although a philosopher, wrote many thoughtful poems. 
In the days of stress and 
strain were born (1807) 
two of our poets most 
beloved by school chil- 
dren, Henry Wads worth 
Longfellow and John 
Greenleaf Whittier. While 
Longfellow was yet a 
student at Harvard he 
wrote that beautiful poem, 
"Hymn to the Moravian 
Nuns," celebrating the 
gift of a banner to 
Pulaski (§208) by nuns at 
Bethlehem, Pennsylvania. 
Whittier, a farmer and a 
Quaker, has been called the poet of freedom because 
he wrote so much against slavery. When but eighteen 
years of age he pubhshed "The Exiles' Departure." 
Oliver Wendell Holmes (1809-94) gave to the world many 
poems as well as prose works of high merit. Among 
his earliest poems was "Old Ironsides," which saved the 
ship "Constitution" (§314) from being destroyed (1830). 
James Russell Lowell (1819-91), one of America's greatest 
literary men, dipped his pen in gall and wrote the Biglow 
Papers. His poetry touched a high plane. Edgar Allen 
Poe (1809-49), whose best known poem is "The Raven," 
but whose strange prose sketches are almost -as noted, 
spent most of his short life in the South. 

382. Newspapers and magazines. The oldest news- 
paper still alive in the United States is the New Hampshire 




HENRY W. LONGFELLOW 



246 SOCIAL CHANGES 

Gazette (1756). The rapid growth of city population 
after the War of 181 2 gave newspapers thousands of 
readers. The daily papers were so full of paying adver- 
tisements that their price was reduced. The New York 
Sun was the first to sell at a penny (1833). In 1841 the 
New York Tribune came into being. For over a quarter 
of a century it was the greatest newspaper in America. 

The spread of popular education made it easy for every- 
body to enjoy reading of all sorts. Magazines had been 
published before the Revolution. One of the greatest of 
them, the North American Review, was first published 
in 18 1 5. Then rapidly followed Harper's, the Atlantic 
Monthly, and the Southern Literary Messenger. The 
Ladies' Magazine appeared in 1827. 

In the latter part of this period the lyceum sprang into 
existence. It did much to bring before the people some 
of the most forceful and eloquent speakers of that time. 

AN ERA OF MORAL REFORM 

383. The early settlers religious. Those who moved 
across the Allegheny Mountains from the East were 
church-going people. They felt the need of churches in 
the new communities. 

Among the more aggressive denominations were the 
Methodists. They sent forth preachers called "circuit 
riders." These rode horseback, carrying a pair of saddle- 
bags containing a few books and sometimes food. It 
often took the circuit rider a month to make one trip in 
his district. He preached, comforted the sick, married 
the young, and buried the dead. 

A new thing among the scattered settlements of the 
frontier was the camp meeting. It has since spread to 
all parts of the country under one name or another. 



AN ERA OF MORAL REFORM 247 

Families traveled to it in wagons, on horseback, and afoot. 
They carried food and tents for sleeping. Great crowds 
gathered to hear the preacher, often some man of wide 
reputation. It was a time of strong feeling. Preachers 
did not stop short of plain speaking about the sins of 
the people and the dangers of everlasting punishment. 

Cartwright, famous throughout the West for melting 
an audience to tears and stirring it up until some had 
the" jerks, "^^'' was a great figure at these camp meetings. 
The meetings often continued for more than a week. 
They were made a place for meeting friends. Sometimes 
politicians came around to shake hands and to "visit 
with the people." 

384. New church denominations. Many new denomi- 
nations came in with the tide of European immigration 
after the Napoleonic wars. In the Northwest mainly 
were the Danish, Swedish, Norwegian, and German 
Protestants. Roman Catholics began to increase, rapidly 
as a result of European migration. 

Many of the old denominations split because one part 
began to emphasize some point of difference. On the 
question of slavery, between 1849 and 1850, a number 
split into a northern and a southern church. 

385. The rise of kindlier feelings. Brandings and 
public whippings had about gone out of fashion (§135). 
Pennsylvania kept the lead given by her founder (§135). 
She had improved her jails, separating the old from the 
young. Her methods were slowly spreading to other 
states. There was much room for improvement in the 
conditions of jails and in the treatment of criminals. 

Thanks to the work of Dorothea Dix, a brighter 
day was dawning for the insane. She claimed it was 
the duty of the state to take care of these unfortunates 



2 48 SOCIAL CHANGES 

instead of leaving them to the care of private persons 
or to communities. 

A great change came when it was decided to put 
nobody in prison for debt. How long it takes to get rid 
of old ideas and customs (§§58, 273) ! 

386. Labor conditions. The improvement of labor 
conditions by making the shop a better place for work, 
by having shorter working hours, and by raising wages 
were all tried during this period. Not much was gained 
because the employer felt that his business was nobody's 
affair but his own. Outside of the great mines and fac- 
tories laborers were not so badly off. There was plenty 
of work in the country, except during the panic of 1837, 
and the cost of living was very low. 

Men working on canals or railroads, as laborers on 
boats, or as workmen on new roads found a growing 
demand for more workers. The farmer and his hands 
labored. from sunrise to sunset, and there was little chance 
to lessen this burden. Labor unions began in a small way 
after the Revolution. The mechanics first united in 1827, 
and in 1837 an attempt was made to form a national 
organization. These unions favored popular education 
and tried to prevent child labor. But for the most part 
they went into politics and accomplished very little. 

387. Woman suffrage. We have seen our new democ- 
racy call for woman's rights (§§239, 240). Woman's field 
of work did not extend much beyond the home. Why 
should she be kept out of all professions except teaching, 
and why should there not be better treatment of women 
teachers ? Women finally concluded that all rights would 
come to them when they had the privilege of voting. 
The first convention for woman's rights was held in 
Seneca Falls, New York (1848). 



THE GROWTH OF INDUSTRY 



249 



388. Other organizations for moral changes. Strong 
drink was common at social gatherings in tliis period, 
even ministers of the gospel sometimes drinking without 
fear of being blamed. To combat this growing evil the 
Washingtonians sprang into existence. Thousands of 
men and women joined the movement and pledged 
themselves to moderate drinking. This new reform was 
helped by the work of Father Matthew among the Roman 
Catholics, and among the Protestants by the efforts of 
the Good Templar societies. 

THE GROWTH OF INDUSTRY 

389. The farmer and the new movements. When 
mighty reforms are sweeping the country, the farmer is 
gradually influenced by them. He is very conservative 
because to mingle with his fellows he must stop his work 
and go where they are. But he was answering more 
promptly to the great inventions which made it easy to 
do things. Inventions to take care of wheat, grass, and 
corn brought about many changes important to him. 

390. The leading 
machines on the farms. 
In this great period of 
new things, Cyrus H. 
McCormick''*'' came with 
his reaper and mower 
(183 1). How quickly 
the farmer cut his wheat 
or mowed his meadow! 
He could now do more 
work with less help and 
do it more easily. The next year he sowed more wheat 
than ever. The mower, drawn by two horses, took the 




CUTTING GR\IN WITH THE SICKLE 



25° 



SOCIAL CHANGES 



place of the scythe; and a "horse rake" took the place 
of the hand rake. The next year the farmer had larger 



/ 

7' 






>J<-3, 







^ o^^-vt' ----^^.f "M^/X^J ^ ''^' 






^^ '" '''''^^'"^ri^f^^P l^¥K'n Ij ^ 






THE ORIGINAL MCCORMICK HARVESTER 



meadows. The "separator" came; it improved the old 
thresher and added a "straw stacker" to carry the 
straw up into the loft of the barn or upon a straw stack. 

Other inventions that lessened labor and increased pro- 
duction on the farm were improvements in the "break- 
ing" plow for turning the furrows in the field. This plow 
was of steel, enabling it to run deeper and smoother. 

The corn drill and the wheat drill also came to lighten 
labor and to make it easier to sow greater quantities of 
grain, and thus to make more work for the other machines. 

In the cotton-raising section of the South not many 
new machines were needed. Improvements in the cotton 
gin had been made (§278). The planter could now raise 
as much cotton as the markets in Europe and America 
needed, and he could sell no more. 



THE GROWTH OF INDUSTRY 251 

391. Increase in manufactures (1820-60). We have 
already seen factories beginning to increase rapidly in 
numbers (§275). The great European migration provided 
plenty of labor. In the older states steam began to 
take the place of water. Whether or not a town was on a 
large stream it could have a factory. The tariff gave a big 
start to manufacturing. Then Clay's compromise tariff 
(1833-43) came, but the mills did not close again even 
when the low tariff of 1846 was passed by Congress. 
They made good in spite of European trade. 

The manufacture of iron goods was now greatly 
improved. It was discovered that hard coal instead 
of charcoal could be used to melt iron ore, and thus pig 
iron was made much cheaper. Cheap pig iron gave the 
rolling mills plenty of work to do. Prom their work came 
better and cheaper tools of all kinds — cheaper spinning 
machines, cheaper looms, and cheaper engines. 




IHMm 
MAKING STEEL PLATES AT PITTSBURGH 



392. Beginning of woman's freedom from drudgery. 

Inventions for the household did not keep pace with 
inventions in other lines. But the time of woman's 



2 52 SOCIAL CHANGES 

freedom was coming. The invention of the cook stove 
promised to give her much reHef. 

Many men had puzzled their brains over the invention 
of a sewing machine. Finally Elias Howe after years of 
poverty and toil reached success. ^^^ He was granted a 

patent in 1846. 

J Matches came to us from Europe 

i ^ and have finally taken the place of 

-^^^^^^ striking fire by- the use of a flint 
pflrM^''^^ or by carrying coals from the 
1 |P|^%!^ neighbors. 
Iti^^^r To the women of the household 

''^^^/^ fell the lot of making the tallow 
I — — ^^^ y candles. This was hard work, 

HOWE'S FIRST SEWING slucc thc tallow camc when a cow 

MACHINE MODEL ^^ ^^ ^^ ^^g J^-||^^ f^^ ^^^^^ 

What a blessing to everybody were the lamps! 

393. Other inventions, (i) One of the most useful of 
all inventions was the Hoe rotary printing press. This 
explains why the great newspapers were turned out at 
such small cost (§382). (2) Before this time pictures 
hard to be carved on wooden or metal plates. This was 
very slow work. But in 1839 a Frenchman succeeded in 
getting a picture by turning sunlight on a copper plate 
covered with a film of silver. From his name these 
pictures were called "daguerreotypes." Following this 
step, rapid strides have been made until today we have 
the "movie films" and pictures taken from airplanes. 
(3) A discovery which has brought about a wonderful 
change in things was Goodyear's solution of the manu- 
facture of rubber by the use of sulphur. This made it 
possible to produce "rubber goods" and scores of other 
articles. (4) How people who came under the surgeon's 



THE GROWTH OF INDUSTRY 



253 



knife must have thanked their stars for the discovery of 
"ether." If ether is taken into the lungs, a person can 
have an operation performed without feeHng it. 

394. Coal and iron mines. Soft coal has been found in 
almost all of the states from the Great Lakes to the Gulf. 




THE COAL FIELDS OF TJiE UNITED STATES 



In this period anthracite or hard coal came into use. 
By 1848 ten canals and twenty-five railroads were carry- 
ing coal and iron away from places where nature had 
stored them. Its coal and iron have made Pennsylvania 
the second state in population, and Pittsburgh the center 
of this trade. 

395. Morse invents the telegraph (1844). The ends 
of the earth were now brought together by the invention 
of the "magnetic telegraph." Samuel F. B. Morse ^''^ is 
the man to whom most honor is due for this discovery, 
although we must not forget Alfred Vail, whose skill and 
shop were always open to Morse. After years of poverty 
Morse received from Congress $30,000 (1843) to build a 



254 



SOCIAL CHANGES 




THE FIRST TELEGRAPH 
INSTRUMENT 



line from Washington to Baltimore. This was completed 
in time to announce the nomination of James K. Polk 

for president. Morse lived to see 
his invention widely adopted and 
to receive medals struck in his 
honor by European nations. 

396. The Atlantic cable joins 
Europe and America. Com- 
modore Maury had studied the 
bottom, of the Atlantic. He sug- 
gested to Cyrus W. Field, a rich 
New Yorker, the idea of joining 
the Old World to the New by 
Morse's invention. Friends in 
America and England aided, and 
Congress gave money for the 
work. The cable began to uncoil in August, 1857. Three 
hundred miles out the line snapped. It cost $500,000 to 
mend it. Again it broke. Field would not give up. 

Over the cable in 1858 Queen Victoria and President 
Buchanan exchanged greetings. While New York City 
was giving the conqueror of the Atlantic a great banquet, 
the cable parted once more. But Field would not sur- 
render. The cable was completed, and Europe and 
America were tied together for better or for worse 
(1866). 

397. The rapid growth of railroads (1840-60). Road 
and canal building was forging ahead when the panic of 
1837 struck the country. Railroads, however, by giving 
quicker service, gained first place after the panic. At 
first they were built in short stretches. A person going 
from Albany to Buffalo was compelled to change cars 
several times and had to buy a ticket on each train. 



THE GROWTH OF INDUSTRY 



255 



Soon a traveler could go from Boston to Buffalo (1842), 
but it was not until 1852 that one could reach Chicago by 
rail. The year 1857 stands out in railroad history, for 
in that year Chicago and St. Louis were joined by rail, 
and the Baltimore and Ohio road reached the latter 
city. By i860 most of the larger cities in the North 
had been joined together by bands of iron. Unfortu- 
nately only a few lines, such as the Illinois Central, 




THE RAILROADS OF THE UNITED STATES IN 1800 



ran from North to South, thus promoting an exchange 
of friendly feelings between those two sections. 



256 



SOCIAL CHANGES 



In this period the United States, unHke some European 
governments, did not own any railroads. It did grant 
aid to build certain lines. Some of the states aided in 
building railroads, and some built them entirely. But 
in time all railroads were owned by private persons. 

398. Cheaper postage. The first expressman. Eng- 
land had long since set the example of cheap postage (1839). 
To send a single-page letter in the United States cost from 
6 to 25 cents, according to distance. In 185 1 Congress 
established the 3 cent rate for letters. But no parcel post 
was established then, and an enterprising young man, 
William F. Harnden, began to carry packages between 
Boston and New York. The example set by Harnden led 
to the formation of the express companies of America. 

399. Steamships. The increase and improvement in 
steamboats on American rivers showed men a quicker 
way to cross the ocean. Already the "Savannah" had 
made the trip using both sails and steam (18 19). Men 
were working hard to improve the engines when coal 
was introduced as a fuel. By this means the "Sirius" 

and the "Great 
Western" both 
crossed the ocean 
without the aid of 
sails (1837). By 
1847 the trip was 
: reduced to eleven 
I days. When 
gold was dis- 
covered in Cali- 
fornia, steamships carried people to Panama. Others 
carried them from the western coast of the Isthmus to 
California. Some ships went by the Straits of Magellan. 




THE "savannah" 



THE (>R()WTH OF INDUSTRY 257 

400. Home and foreign, trade (1830-50). The building 
of canals increased trade on the Great Lakes. There was 
six times as much trade in 1830 as in 1820. By 1840 this 
trade had grown to three times the amount of 1830. In 
185 1 Ohio sent 12,000,000 bushels of wheat to the East. 

The "clipper" ship, an American invention, gave 
America first place as a rapid carrier of trade. The 
European wars again put a great trade in American 
hands (§§289,297). Our clippers traded even with China 
and India. 

In the year 1854 Commodore Matthew C. Perry brought 
us into friendly relations with Japan. The Japanese 
had never before admitted foreigners, but after Perry 
and his warships had visited Japan, the United States 
made treaties of friendship and trade with that country. 

SUGGESTED READINGS 

References for teachers: Wright, Industrial Evolution of the 
United States, 132-152; Andrews, History of the United States, II, 
66-74; Ingle, Southern Side Lights, 10-20, 47-66, 176-195, 298-399; 
Bogart, Economic History, chaps, xiii, xv, xvi, xviii, xxvi; Morse. 
Causes and Effects in American History, chap, xii; McMaster, History 
of the American People, VIII, chap. Ixxxvii; Hart, Contemporaries, 
III, 161-573; Moore, Industrial History, 299-316, 361-362,392-422, 
44S-46S. 

References for pupils: Mace, Stories of Heroism, 235-252 (Fulton, 
Morse, Field, and Edison); Hart, Source Reader, II, 334-370; Great 
Epochs in American History, YII, 36-47; Sparks, Expansion of the 
American People, chap, xxiv; Faris, Real Stories from Our History, 
chaps, xlii-xliii. 

PROBLEMS AND PROJECTS 

I. Write a story about the Irish and German immigrants in 1850. 
2. Three boys start for California to dig gold. Each takes a different 
route and writes back to his friends. 3. Attend a country debate in 
i860. Write about the subject debated and the arguments used. 
4. A girl in i860 writes a story of woman's efforts to get into men's 
colleges, into business, and into teaching. 5. Write a brief story of 
Dorothea Dix. 6. You .are a reporter. Write about the banquet 
given Cyrus W. Field. 

10 



H)^ 



CHAPTER XVI 
THE QUESTION OF SLAVERY 

ECONOMIC CONTRASTS 

401. Where differences between North and South 
came from. Behind all the difficulty between North and 
South lay the difference in soil and climate. The South 
raised tobacco, rice, and cotton, but did not manufacture 
much. From colonial times the South had sold part of 
its crops to Europe. But the protective tariff made the 
South pay a higher price for goods bought abroad. 

The tariff had made the North a manufacturing section. 
Hence it had to have cotton for its mills. The South 
wanted to buy goods made in Europe. Hence, it opposed 
the American tariff. 

402. Opposition to the tariff. In the early days of the 
protective tariff many men in the. South thought they 



■^ 




NORTHERN INDUSTRY , ^ 



would build mills and factories and manufacture the 
cotton they raised (§322). They saw their mistake, and 
most of them opposed the tariffs of 1S24 and 1828.'*-'' By 

258 



ECONOIMIC CONTRASTS 



'59 




^^9'j 



SOUTHERN INDUSTRY BEFORE THE WAR 



1828 the majority of the northern congressmen, including 

Webster, favored the tariff (§336). The battle against 

the protective tariff began 

in earnest when Calhoun, 

then vice-president, took 

strong ground against it 

in a long letter sent to 

South Carolina. He took 

the position that a state 

might nullify a law of 

Congress (§294)., 

403. The Webster- 
Hayne debate (1830). 
Senator Hayne of South 
Carolina made a brilliant 
defense of the right of a state to nullify an act of 
Congress. He attacked New England in this speech, and 
Daniel Webster felt called upon to reply. On that 
occasion the Senate was crowded; standing room was not 
to be had on the floor or in the galleries. People had 
come from distant cities and "grave senators were lost in 
the crowd of gay ladies. ' ' 

How grand was the scene when Websler arose! His 
fine figure, massive head, and large, deep-set eyes attracted 
attention the moment he began to speak. He spoke for 
hours, linking arguments into a chain that could not be 
broken. He declared that no state had ever had the right 
to nullify the laws of Congress. Then with deep feeling 
he described the glories of a strong and lasting union, 
closing with the immortal words: "Libert}^ and Union, 
now and forever, one and inseparable." Americans have 
come to accept Webster's point of view, and since the 
Civil War no state has tried to nullify an act of Congress. 



F.CONOMIC CONTRAS'l^S 26 t 

404. The tariff nullified by South Carolina (1832). 

The battle against the tariff went on. The nulHfiers tried 
to win Jackson to their side. But at Jefferson's birthday 
dinner he threw a bombshell into their midst by offering 
the toast : ' ' The Federal Union : It must be preserved. 

Nevertheless South Carolina called a convention which 
declared the tariff "null and void," and forbade the 
United States revenue officers to collect it in her ports. 
This convention declared that if force were used, South 
Carolina would leave the Union. Jackson was angry. 
He sent forth a ])roclamation den3nng, as Webster had 
done, the right of a state to nullify a law or to leave the 
Union. He had ordered General Scott to Charleston 
harbor. He also sent war vessels there, declaring the 
Federal laws should be enforced without fear or favor. 

405. The "Force Bill" and the compromise (1833). 
Union men everywhere jiraiscd Jackson for his stand. 
He now called on Congress to grant him the right to use 
the army and navy if need be. Clay introduced his 
compromise to cut down the tariff, little by little, for ten 
years. Both bills passed Congress the same day.^'** This 
was a happ)^ settlement, for no man can tell what the result 
might have been had South Carolina resisted or seceded. 

BEGINNING TO AGIT.^TE OVER SLAVERY 

406. What slavery was like. Slavery has been touched 
on frequently (§§41, m, 252, 278, 345), but now it begins 
to divide our people and calls for closer study. The slaves 
were bought and sold like other property. Hence slaves 
did not have very* much ambition to learn to read or to 
impro\'e their condition. A mistress sometimes taught 
them to read, and certain of the faithful negroes were 
permitted to preach to them. 



262 



THE QUESTION OF SLAVERY 



There was little home life among them. Their houses 
were small and poorly kept. There was constant danger 
that father or mother, son or sister, might be sold to 
planters far away. 

The slaves, as a rule, were kindly treated, especially 
the household and the body servants. The master valued 
highly such slaves as he could trust. The "mammies," 
who cared for the young white children, were greatly 
beloved by them. 

407. The rise of the Abolitionists. After the cotton 
gin came into use (§278), opposition to slavery, even in 
the North, seemed to die down. About 1830 people in 
Europe and America began new movements for bettering 
the conditions of men. Among these people were the 
Abolitionists, who demanded that all slaves should be set 

free immediately. 

The Abolitionists were radi- 
cals, and soon there was a split 
among them. William Lloyd 
Garrison, editor of the Liberator, 
led a faction demanding the 
breaking up of the Union. 

Great people belonged to 
these abolition parties. Among 
them were Whittier, the poet 
(§381) ; Sumner, a United States 
senator; Phillips, a great orator ; 
and Lucretia Mott, a Quakeress. 
Among congressmen were Chase 
and Gidding^ of Ohio and Slade 




WILLIAM LLOYD GARRISON 



of Vermont. 



408. What the South thought about Abolitionists. The 

majority of slaveholders thought that the two races 
10 



BEClINXlNCi TO AClITATE OVER SLAVliRY 



263 




BURNING ANTI-SLAVERY DOCUMENTS AT CHARLESTON 



could live together only as master and slave. Calhoun 
declared that "slavery is a good, a positive good." 
Slaveholders 
denounced the 
Abolitionists 
for sending the 
Liberator and 
similar docu- 
ments to the 
South. They 
declared that 
the slave would 
become discon- 
tented and rise 
and murder 
the whites. 

409. What the North thought. The majority in the 
North opposed the Abolitionists at first, and broke up 
their meetings. Those opposed to the Abolitionists 
destroyed their printing presses in Cincinnati and New 
York, and in Ilhnois murdered Elijah Love joy, who was 
defending his newspaper. 

Aided by congressmen of the North, southern members 
passed the famous "gag" resohition. This resolution 
tried to shut anti-slavery petitions out of Congress. The 
South made a great mistake. Before this only a few 
petitions came into Congress, but now they came by the 
hundreds. 

John Quincy Adams was the hero of the battle in Con- 
gress for the right of petition (§267). He lived to see 
the gag resolution repealed (1844). 

410. A third party. The result was an Abolition party 
formed in ](S4o with James G. Birney as a candidate for 



264 



THE OUESTIOX OP'' SLAVERY 



president. Its popular vote was seven thousand. It took 
a new name in 1844, the Liberty party, but held to can- 
didate Birney and polled sixty-two thousand votes. The 
number opposed to slavery, however, was made much 
larger by the fight over the right of petition. 

THE TEXAX REVOLUTION. TERRITORY OX THE P.\CIFIC 

411. Texas wins her independence (1836). After 
Mexico w^on her independence from Spain (182 1), xVmeri- 
cans, encouraged by the Republic of Mexico, began to 
settle in Texas. But the Americans and Mexicans did 
not get on well together. They differed in race and 
religion. When Mexico abolished slavery the American 
settlers paid little attention to the law. Mexico then 
forbade them to settle in Texas. 

The Texans rebelled and set up an independent govern- 
ment. Scores of brave men rushed to the aid of Texas. 
The Mexicans attacked and brutally murdered the few 
who remained at the Alamo and three hundred men at 
Goliad. But General Sam Houston was coming to the 

aid of the Texans. 
He defeated and 
captured Santa 
Anna at San 
Jacinto (1836). 

412. Campaign 
of 1844. The 
Democrats nomi- 
nated James K. 
Polk of Tennessee , 
and the Whigs, 
Henry Clay of Kentucky. The Liberty party put up 
Birney again. Polk favored the annexation of Texas, 




THE .A.LAMO, SAN ANTONIO 




1 Ip. ^'^^^^^^^ , Weat from Oreen^nch 

Cnpyright. 1903. by R»od. 



C'lprright. 1903, by Rud. McNkIIj k.Comjfmar 



TEXAS AND TERRITORY r)X THE PACIFIC 



265 




and Clay opposed it unless Mexico gave her consent. 
He did not want war with our neighbor. Whether Texas 
should or should not be admit- 
ted to the Union was the great 
question in the campaign. 

413. Texas annexed. Presi- 
dent Jackson had been kept 
from annexing Texas by the 
danger to his party in the 
North if more slave territory 
were added. But President 
Tyler had favored annexation. 
It took place by joint resolution 
of Congress (1S45). This was 
a new way of admitting a 
state. 

414. Origin of the Oregon 
question. The Oregon country 
extended from the southern line of Alaska, 54°4o', down 
to 42°, and from the Rocky Mountains to the Pacific 
Ocean. We have seen our claims to this region (§301). 
The Hudson's Bay Fur Company also very early claimed 
it for Great Britain and had driven out American trappers 
(§301). In 18 1 8 the dispute over this region was settled 
for a time by a treaty which agreed that both nations 
might occupy Oregon until further notice. 

Immediately after the declaration of the Monroe 
Doctrine (§350), Russia agreed not to extend the southern 
line of Alaska farther south. 

415. The settlement of Oregon. About 1830 an east- 
ern business man began to plan a chain of posts for pur- 
poses of trade in this region. The Methodists, fired by 
zeal, sent missionaries to the Indians of the Willamette 



JAMES K. POLK 



266 THE QUEvSTION OP SLAVERY 

Valley (1834). Congregationalists and Catholics fol- 
lowed. The Spaniards had sent missionaries into this 
country from California long before our Revolution. 

Dr. Marcus Whitman was one of the early missionaries 
to Oregon. It is claimed that he became alarmed over 
the danger of the British seizing the country. He made a 
dangerous horseback ride in dead of winter to the East. 
He came to report on his mission work. But it is said 
that he went to Washington also and aroused President 
T^der to the danger of permitting the British to seize 
the country. 

416. The Oregon Trail. How settlers migrated to 
Oregon. The bold pioneers to the Oregon country trav- 
eled much as did those who had crossed the Alleghenies a 
generation before. They gathered in large numbers at 
Westport, now Kansas City, for the journey was long 
and hard. They had to cross the Rockies and great 
stretches of country where water was scarce. 

They had great wagons drawn by teams of horses or of 
oxen. At night their wagons were drawn up in a big 
circle to keep off the Indians. They halted where grass 
and water were found. After supper the women and chil- 
dren rolled themselves in blankets and went to sleep under 
the stars. Some of the men stood guard over the camps 
while others looked out for cattle and horses. Sometimes 
on this journey they halted to bury one whom sickness 
had struck down. They left the bod}' with only a pile 
of stones to mark the last resting place. At first it took 
twelve to sixteen weeks to reach their homes in some 
nook or valley of the new land. 

417. What the government did. A few men, like 
Senator Benton (§354) of Missouri, had always stood 
boldly in defense of this region. He had his son-in-law, 



TEXAS A\D TERRITORY OX THE PACIFIC 



267 



John C. Fremont, sent to explore it. In three great 
expeditions Fremont wandered over the . wild land of 
the Rocky Mountains, following the Oregon Trail to 
this region. Finally, after a long, bitter battle with snow 
and hunger, he crossed the Sierra Madre Mountains into 
California (1842-46). 

The hardy sons of the Willamette Valley set up a local 
government (1843) (§373). Hundreds of settlers were 
coming into other places. They naturally looked to 
the United States government to settle the disputed 
boundary question. 

418. How Oregon got into the campaign of 1844. The 
Democrats stole a march on the Whigs by their campaign 
cries: the ''reannexation of Texas" for the South, and 
for the North they had two : "Fifty-four forty or fight " 
and "All Oregon or none."'^'^ 

It was easier to win the elec- 
tion than to settle the questions 
raised in the campaign. Mexico 
had said she would fight if 
Texas were annexed (§412), 
Polk, the new president (1845- 
49), saw that he must settle the 
Oregon question in a friendly 
way or have two wars on hand 
at once. The dispute with 
Great Britain was compromised. 
Both nations accepted the line 
of 49°. Not without cause 
were some of those pioneers 

419. War with Mexico. Taylor's campaigns. The 
Mexican government had refused for a long time to settle 
for destroying American property. The Texans claimed 




ZACHARY TAYLOR 



angrv over the result. 



268 



THE QUESTION OF SLAVERY 



the Rio Grande as 
their southern line, 
while the Mexicans 
declared it to be 
the Nueces. When 
Mexicans killed 
American soldiers 
in the disputed 
territory, President 
Polk declared 
that Mexico "had 
shed American 
blood on American 
soil."!^^ Congress 
declared war im- 
mediately (1846). 
General Taylor 
at once marched 
across the Rio 
Grande, and from 
Palo Alto to Buena 
Vista (1847) won a 
series of brilliant 
victories. His 
boys called him 
"Old Rough and 
Ready." He was 
a hero in the eyes 
of Americans. 

420. Scott's campaign. New Mexico and California. 
Polk planned a new campaign and put General Scott in 
command. This army smashed its way from Vera Cruz 
to the City of Mexico. Scott rode proudly at the head 




THE TEXAS BOUNDARY DISPUTE 



TEXAS AND TERRITORY ON THE PACIFir 



269 



of the American arni}^ in the land through which Cortez 
(§17) had journeyed more than three hundred years 
before. Santa Anna, president of Mexico, was compelled 
to make a treaty of peace (1848). 

One of the longest marches ever made through an 
enemy's country was made by Colonel S. W. Kearney 
and his men. They went from Fort Leavenworth, 




GULF 

OF 

MEXICO 



TERRITORY GAINED BY THE TREATY OF PEACE, I848 

Kansas, to California. They traveled the old Santa Fe 
trail to Santa Fe, New Mexico (§31), captured this 
town, and set up a new government (1846). With a part 
of his men Kearney made his way to California. He 
found California almost conquered. 

American settlers in the country had already raised the 
standard of revolt and had set up the Bear State republic. 
General Fremont joined forces with them. By the aid of 
a small fleet the Americans had most of California under 
control when Kearney and his men arrived. 



2 70 THE QUESTION OF SLAVERY 

Mexico, for $15,000,000, turned over to the United 
States California and New Mexico. Later (1853) the 
Gadsden Purchase was added (see map). 

vSHALL THE NEW TERRITORY BE SLAVE OR FREE? 

421. Opposition to the war. The Wilmot Proviso. 

Thousands of anti-slavery people in the North opposed 
the war. The Whig party opposed it, but voted men and 
money to carry it on. 

President Polk asked Congress for $2,000,000 to make 
peace with Mexico. The House refused. It declared 
that no territory obtained by the war should ever be open 
to slavery. This was the Wilmot Proviso. '^^ It did not 
pass, for the Senate was against it. But it showed how 
strong the anti-slavery sentiment was. After two y^ars 
of quarreling over slavery Congress succeeded in passing 
a bill for the free territory of Oregon (1848). 

422. Taylor president. The Free-Soil party (1848). 
Both Democrats and Whigs were afraid of the slavery 
question. The Democrats, whose majority lay in the 
South, nominated a northern man, Senator Cass, from a 
state containing many anti-slavery Whigs. The Whigs 
nominated General Taylor, a southern man, from a state 
containing thousands of pro-slavery voters. 

The strong anti-slavery men were disgusted. They 
met at Buffalo and boldly nominated Martin Van Buren 
(§361). They sent forth a platform against slavery in 
the territories. Liberty party men united with anti- 
slavery Democrats and Whigs in shouting for ' ' free soil, 
free speech, free labor, and free men." The soldier 
candidate won !"^ Even South Carolina voted for Taylor. 

423. Gold discovered in California (1848). Gold was 
discovered in California shortly after the territory was 



NEW TERRITORY SLAVE OK VRVA: 



271 



.111) 



^rf^^-j" 



/ 



ceded to the United States by Mexico. Its discovery 
was an accident. Some men, digging a mill-race along 
the American River several miles above Sacramento, 
discovered yellow ^ ^Z"" 

grains in the sand. 
They proved to be «^„ :;■ 

gold. The news 
went everywhere. 
There was great 
excitement. The old 
slow ways of making a living 
were given up. Laborers work- 
ing at lumbering, milling, herd- 
ing, clerking, and farming rushed 
to the gold region. Soldiers and 
sailors deserted their posts. In 
four months there were four ^ .^.«^ ,.^^ 

thousand digging gold on the a California mining camp of '49 

American River. The next year the "Forty-niners" 
reached California from the ends of the earth. Many 
followed the Oregon Trail to the point where a branch 
turned off to the land of gold. Some went by ship by 
way of Cape Horn. Others crossed by way of Panama 
to the Pacific. Intense suffering was experienced by 
either route. Many going overland perished from cold in 
the mountains or from hunger and thirst in the "deserts." 
424. The gold miners make California a free state. 
The people of California had to act quickly. There were 
nearly a hundred thousand of them (1849). They needed 
a government to keep order. They held a convention and 
adopted a constitution shutting out slavery. The slave- 
holders were astounded when President Taylor favored 
admitting California with her anti-slavery constitution."'* 




272 



THE QUESTION OF SLAVERY 



Congress was excited over California. The South was 
disappointed, and threats of secession were heard. 
425. Henry Clay, the peacemaker, to the rescue (1850). 

Henry Clay, with thousands of southerners, loved the 
Union first. He was an old and broken man. He had 
retired from the Senate, but both Whigs and Democrats 
in the Kentucky legislature united to send him back to 
his place. They hoped the nation would be thrilled once 
more by that voice in favor of union. 

He introduced his compromise. This was soon called 
the "Omnibus Bill"- — it contained so many measures: 
(i) the admission of California with her free state consti- 
tution; (2) the territories of Utah and New Mexico 
organized without settling the slavery question; (3) the 
abolition of the slave trade in the District of Columbia; 

(4) a new law for the return 
of fugitive slaves; (5) the 
dispute between Texas and 
New Mexico over boundary 
lines' settled by paying Texas 
$10,000,000. 

426. The great debate 
(1850). No such able orators 
as those who took part in the. 
great debate had been heard 
before in the Senate: Clay, 
Webster, Calhoun, Benton, 
Douglas, Davis, Seward, 
Chase, and others. 

Early in February Clay 
arose to speak. There was a crowded house. People 
had come hundreds of miles to hear that silvery voice 
make a last appeal for the Union. He spoke for two 




MILLARD FILLMORE 



NEW TERRITORY SLAVE OR FREE 



273 



days. He seemed young again. When he closed, men 
rushed forward to congratulate him and fair ladies to 
press upon his cheek the kiss of admiration. 




WEBSTER .ADDRESSING THE SENATE ON THE 7TH OF MARCH 

Calhoun was too ill to speak. A friend read his address. 
What a scene ! ' ' There he sat, motionless as a statue, with 
the hand of death upon him." He watched the effect of 
his words upon his audience. He asked: (i) an equal 
division of the territories; (2) a better fugitive slave law; 
(3) the stopping of anti-slavery agitation. He declared: 
"If you of the North will not do these things, let our 
southern states depart in peace." 

Webster made his fatal "Seventh of March Speech." 
It was "For the Union and the Constitution." In divid- 
ing the blame between the agitators of the North and the 
South he seemed to consider that the North was most at 
fault. The anti-slavery Whigs of New England made 
his few remaining days bitter on account of this speech. 

The new champion of slavery was found in Jefferson 
Davis, who was already taking the place of the dying 



274 



THE OUESTIOX OF SLAVERY 



Calhoun. ^^"^ Seward declared there was "a higher law 
than the Constitution," the moral law. 

427. The results of the compromise. Congress passed 
the measures in the Omnibus Bill, and it seemed for a 
time a happy settlement of the difficulty. Renewed 
loyalty to the Union was encouraged by the Whigs and 
Democrats holding together "Union meetings." But 
anti-slavery men found fault with the compromise on 
account of the Fugitive Slave Law (Art. IV, §2, ^3). 
The extreme pro-slavery men found fault with it because 
it did not suppress agitation among the Abolitionists. 

428. Franklin Pierce president (1853-57). The cam- 
paign of 1852 was an overwhelming victory for the Demo- 
crats. General Scott, the Whig candidate, believed up 
to the last moment that he would be elected. The cam- 
paign was like a funeral procession for the Whigs. Clay 







JKFFERSOX DAVIS IX THE COMPROMISE DEBATES IN CONT.RKSS 



died at its beginning and Webster at its close. The 
Whig party, too, was dying. Men began to speak of a 



NEW TERRITORY SLAVE OR FREH 



275 




FRANKLIN PIKRCK 



new ' ' era of good feeling " (§351). Pierce in his inaugural 
pledged himself to encourage the growing hannony. 

429. "Underground Railroad." 
The term "Underground Railroad" 
named the secret routes along which 
fugitive slaves were helped to reach 
Canada. '•"' Sometimes the anti- 
slavery men would enter a slave 
state to help negroes to run away. 
Everything had to be done secretly, 
for such acts were violations of the 
Fugitive Slave Law (§425). Hun- 
dreds of anti-slavery men were vio- 
lating the laws of Congress to heep 
from violating Seward's "higher 
law" (§426). 

A number of northern states 
passed Personal Liberty laws to protect men ' ' working on 
the Underground Railroad," and forbade people to aid 
slave hunters. These laws nullified the Fugitive Slave 
Law as much as South Carolina nullified the tariff (§404). 

Many anti-slavery people were encouraged to seize 
slaves in spite of both the officers of the law and the 
slaveholder.'''- Men were murdered by both sides. 

430. "Uncle Tom's Cabin" (1852). Harriet Beecher 
Stowe saw a bit of slave life in Kentucky. She painted 
the good and the bad sides of slavery. But she set forth 
the dark side much more fully. The experiences through 
which she put Uncle Tom were not the rule in the South, 
but the exception. Uncle Tom's Cabin was a powerful 
novel. "That book will make 2,000,000 Abolitionists," 
said a northern nifin. "All the defenders of slavery have 
let me alone and are after you," said Garrison (§407). 



276 THE yUESTloX OF SLAVERY 

SUGGESTED READINGS 

References for teachers: Wilson, Division and Reunion, 11 7-21 2; 
Lodge, Webster ("American Statesmen Series")) I54"~i84; Schurz, 
Clay ("American Statesmen Series"), II, 1-22, 69-94, 315-335; 
Elson, Side Lights, 1, 241-300; Sparks, Expansion of the American 
People, chaps, xxiv, xxxi-xxxiii; Grant, Memoirs, I, 92-174; Hart, 
Contemporaries, III, 579-583, 5Q1-594, 612-618; IV, 75-79, 80-83; 
Hart, Patriots and Statesmen, IV, 135-414; Bassett, Short History, 
428-441, 445-450, 497-504; Dodd, Expansion and Conflict, chaps, 
vii, xii-xiii; McMaster, History of the American People, VII, chaps. 
Ixxx-lxxxii, Ixxxv; VIII, chap. Ixxxvi; Rhodes, History of the United 
States, I, chaps, i-v; II, chaps, vii-viii; III, chap. xiii. 

References for pupils: Mace, Stories of Heroism, 269-298 (Clay, 
Webster, Calhoun, Lincoln) ; Mace, Lincoln, the Man of the People, 
i-ioo; Hart, Source Book, 248-279, 284-296; Drake, Meaning of the 
Great West, 215-240, 271-284; Wright, American Progress. 

Fiction: Lowell, Biglow Papers; Whittier, Angels of Buena Vista; 
Butterworth, Log School House; Carr, Illini; Monroe, Golden Days of 
'4q; Smedes, Memorials of a Southern Planter; Hale, Neiv England 
Boyhood; Larcom, Neiv En ill and Girlhood. 

PROBLEMS AND PROJECTS 

I. Two lioys sit in the Senate during the Webster-Hayne debate. 
Write on opposite sides for your teacher. 2. You are a member of 
Jackson's "kitchen" cabinet. Report what Jackson says about 
Calhoun and South Carolina to a member of Congress. 3. Dramatize 
a meeting of the American Anti-Slavery Society; characters, Garrison 
and other leaders among the abolitionists. 4. Dramatize the "great 
debate" in 1850. 5. "Write up" a slave's experiences in escaping 
by way of the Underground Railroad. 6. Read Uncle Tom's Cabin 
and write about the parts that seemed unfair to the South. 



CHAPTER XVII 



THE POLITICAL CONFLICT 



THE KANSAS STRUGGLE DRIVES THE NORTH AND 
SOUTH FARTHER APART 



431. The career of Douglas (1813-61). Douglas, born 
in Vermont, lost his father when a mere boy. He was 
put to learn the carpenter's trade. 

His family moved to New York, 
near Canandaigua where young 
Douglas entered the academy. 
He became the best debater in 
school and a general favorite. In 
a couple of years he left for the 
West and turned up in Illinois 
with 1 7 cents in his pockets. He 
was clerk to an auctioneer for 
three days, taught school, studied 
law, and became attorney-general 
of the state at twenty-one. He 
was a congressman at thirty, a 
United States senator at thirty- 
four, and in 1852 at the age of thirty-nine received 
ninety-one votes for nomination for president. He 
rapidly became the idol of the northern Democrats, and 
was probably the greatest offhand debater America has 
ever produced. 

432. Douglas raises a storm over Kansas (1854). Had 
it not been for the Kansas question, the North and the 
South would have lived peacefully together for many 




STEPHEN A. DOUGLAS 



277 



278 THE POLITICAL CONFLICT 

years. Early in 1854 Douglas brought in a bill making 
two territories out of the region running from the Missouri 
River to the Rocky Mountains. In these two territories, 
Kansas and Nebraska, the slavery question was left in 
the hands of the people living there. Douglas called this 
"popular sovereignty," but his enemies named it "squat- 
ter sovereignty." He proposed to repeal the Missouri 
Compromise (§346). 

Suddenly Douglas felt a storm crashing round his head. 
The North was furious; pulpit and press thundered their 
protests against this measure. The anti-slavery men said 
that Congress could not possibl}^ put slavery into this 
territory. Public meetings ever^^where in the North 
denounced Douglas and his bill. He was hissed from a 
platform in his own city of Chicago. ^^^ 

In spite of the northern opposition, the bill was passed 
and signed by the president who had so lately promised 
not to disturb the good feeling growing out of the 
Compromise of 1850. 

433. The struggle for Kansas begins. Both sides were 
ready for the struggle for Kansas. The pro-slavery men 
from Tvlissouri reached Kansas first because they were 
nearest. But Eli Thayer had already organized in New 
England the "Emigrant Aid Society" to send northern 
men there. 

In the summer of 1854 the first company started on its 
long journey to the disputed territory. It was a strange 
company on a strange errand ! People gathered to cheer 
it on its way, and a few joined it. This company located 
at Lawrence. 

The South was not to be outdone, and bands of settlers 
from that section entered to make Kansas a slave territory. 
But the North had more men to send. 



XORTH AND SOUTH FARTHER APART 



'■19 



434. The rivals face to face (1855). The proslavcry 
men won the first election because in the beginning 




.^■&t^-' 



i:mi<;r.\xts on thi-;ir wav id kan'sas 



of the struggle they had more voters' in the territory. 
They elected a delegate to Congress, set up a state 
government, drew up the Lecompton constitution, and 
passed laws favoring slavery. The antislavery men 
immediately raised the cry of fraud. They claimed the 
election was unfair and refused to accept the Lecompton 
constitution. 

They did not stop with this, but went to work as Cali- 
fornia had done (§424), to make a free state constitution. 
Having done this, they applied for admission to the Union 
as a free state. 

There were rival governments in the territory now, 
a slave state and a free state one. Soon the wilder 
element in both factions began burning and murdering. 
There was civil war in Kansas — "bleeding Kansas" 
as the territory was called. The attention of the whole 
country was fixed on the struggle for Kansas. 



28o 



THE POLITICAL CONFLICT 



435. The effect upon the country. Nobody was more 
surprised at this upheaval than Douglas. But he 
met the ablest antislavery men in debate in the Senate. 
Some members of Congress were now carrying arms. 
Most unfortunately good men, North and South, were 
growing suspicious of each other. The North felt that 
the South was determined to put slavery in the terri- 
tories and even in the free states. The South believed 
that the North was determined to stamp out slavery, 
not only in the territories, but in the states where it 
had long existed. 

436. The RepubHcan party (1854-56). The passing of 
the Kansas-Nebraska Bill and the deeds done in Kansas 
had stirred the nation. The Whig party was dead. 
The southern wing joined the Democrats. The northern 

Whigs united with thousands 
of antislavery Democrats and 
Free-Soilers to form the new 
Republican party. Seward was 
the leader of the Whig side of 
the new party, Chase of the 
Democrats and Free-Soilers. 
Republicans were accused 
of being a "sectional party" 
and "Black Republicans." 
On a platform demanding that 
all territory should be free, the 
party nominated John C. 
Fremont , the " Pathfinder 
(§417). The Democrats put 
Douglas aside and named an 
old bachelor, James Buchanan of Pennsylvania. He 
had been out of the country during the Kansas struggle. 




JAMES BUCHANAN 




THE BOY LINCOLN 



NORTH AND SOUTH FARTHER APART 



2Sr 




THE LOG CABIN BIRTHPLACE OF ABRAHAM LINCOLN' 



A third or "American" party — the "Know-Nothing," as 
it was nicknamed — arose to keep foreigners out of office. 
Many Whigs and ^ -^. -^ ^ 

Democrats, both 
North and South, 
voted for "Know- 
Nothing" men. 

The Repubhcans 
had the enthusi- 
asm, but the Demo- 
crats had the votes. 
All the northern 
states but four 
were carried b}^ the Republicans. Their popular vote was 
1,300,000. Buchanan won. All the slave states but one 
voted for him. Something had to be done. The country 
was rapidly breaking into a North and a South. 

437. The Dred Scott Decision. The Supreme Court 
tried its hand, but it only widened the deepening chasm. 
Dred Scott, a negro slave, had sued for his freedom 
because he had been taken into free territory. Chief 
Justice Taney declared: (i) that slaves were not citi- 
zens; (2) that they might be taken to any territory like 
other property; (3) that neither territorial legislatures 
nor Congress could put them out. Hence the Missouri 
Compromise was against the Constitution (§346). 

This decision by the court was a blow at the newly 
formed Republican party and also at Douglas' doctrine 
of "popular sovereignty." The North felt outraged. 
The South was happy over the decision. One more blow 
was needed to split the Democratic party. We must 
stop here to look at the man in the Republican party 
who was to deliver that blow. 



28: 



THE I'OLrriCAL CONFLICT 



438. Abraham Lincoln (1809-65). Abraham Lincohi 
was born among the Kentucky hills. When he was seven 
years old his parents moved to southern Indiana. There 

he lived until he was twenty- 
one. His father built a three- 
sided shack for a home. This 
gave place the next year to 
a log cabin with only the 
earth for a floor. Before she 
died his mother had taught 
young Lincoln to read. 

His father married again, 
but his stepmother was kind 
to'him and saw that he had a 
chance to go to school. He 
was the best speller in his 
neighborhood. Big for his 
age, he could outdo the others 
in games of strength, and he kept peace among the boys. 
He liked mental work better than hand work. He read 
when he could and figured on the wooden shovel by the 
light of the fire. He walked miles to borrow a book or 
to read a newspaper. 

At seventeen he was a man m size and strength, and he 
was a favorite at log-rollings, or wherever strength was 
demanded. Once when he lived in Indiana and again 
while he was in Illinois, he went to New Orleans as a 
"hand" on a flatboat. When he was twenty-one, his 
parents moved to Illinois. Lincoln was in turn clerk in 
a store, surveyor, postmaster, and captain in the Black 
Hawk War. He studied law in his spare moments, was 
elected to the state legislature, and it was at the capital 
that he saw Douglas for the first time. 




.ABRAHAM LINCOLN 



\f)RTH AND SOUTH FARTHER APART 283 

He was elected four times to the legislature and once to 
Congress. He had frequent stirring debates with Douglas, 
and after 1854 these were held oftener and grew more seri- 
ous. Lincoln clearly saw the approaching political storm. 

439. A house divided against itself (1858). Douglas 
came up for reelection to the United States vSenate. The 
Republicans, meeting in state convention at Springfield, 
declg,red, "Abraham Lincoln is our first and only 
choice" for that position 

Lincoln made a famous speech'''' before the convention 
that same night, saying: "A house divided against itself 
cannot stand. This government cannot endure perma- 
nently half slave and half free It will become 

all one thing or all the other." 

Douglas, before a great audience in Chicago, denounced 
Lincoln for trying to cause war between the sections. 
Lincoln replied the following night. He denied Douglas' 
charges and pointed out the weak spots in the doctrine of 
"popular sovereignty." Other political duels followed, 
and Lincoln challenged Douglas to debate the question 
before the people of Illinois. 

440. The great debates. The debates attracted wide- 
spread attention. People gathered froin far and near to 
hear them. Many came the day before the debate was 
to be held, afoot, on horseback, and in wagons. Some 
of these wagons carried whole families; some were deco- 
rated with flags and banners, and loaded with young women. 
On the great day the town was alive with a vast, jostling, 
noisy, good-natured crowd of country, village, and city folk. 

The presence of reporters from distant cities showed 
how the whole country viewed the coming battle. 

What a difference in the two men! Douglas was 
good-looking but short and thick. He spoke rapidly and 



2 84 



THE in)Ll'llCAL (CONFLICT 



powerfully. He carried his hearers with him by storm. 
He loved a hand-to-hand fight, and when his arguments 
were weak, he "threw dust in the eyes of his audience" 
and made "the worse appear the better reason." 

Lincoln was tall, slender, awkward, and homely. He 
spoke slowly and calmly. His language was plain, some- 
times quaint and humorous. He was a great story-teller. 
But his mind was sure, if slow. He always debated to 
find the truth and to set it forth. . He was the one man 
Douglas feared in a political battle. 

In debate Lincoln compelled Douglas to admit that a 
territory could get rid of slavery by unfriendly laws. 
Douglas was thus true to his doctrine of "popular sover- 
eignty," but this admission was against the Dred Scott 
decision (§437) and it made the South angry. On the 
other hand l;)y this stand he held the people of Illinois. 




I.INCOLN-DOUr.LAS DEBATE AT FREEPORT 



441. The result. Throughout seven joint debates they 
discussed slavery in some form or other, but they alwa3^s 



NORTH AND SOUTH 1>\\RTHER APART 



'-^5 




JOHN brown's 1-'0RT 



came back to the question of whether or not the legis- 
lature of a territory could prohibit slavers^ . Douglas won 
and was elected 
senator, but lost 
the sup I) o r t of 
the wSouth for the 
presidency (§431). 
Lincoln began as 
an Illinois leader. 
He ended with 
a national reputa- 
tion. His success 
made him later a popular candidate for the presidency. 

442. John Brown's raid (1859). In the fall of 1859 
the country was alarmed by the news that John Brown 
with a few companions had captured Harper's Ferry. 
Brown planned to set the slaves free. Only a few joined 
him. He was arrested, and after a fair trial was hanged. 
The South was startled at the thought of what might 
have been. A few people at the North regarded Brown 
as a martyr. The strain between the North and the 
South had now reached the breaking point. 

443. The Democratic party splits (i860). Men looked 
forward with anxiety to the Democratic convention which 
was to meet at Charleston. Lincoln by his master strokes 
had widened the chasm between the northern and southern 
Democrats. Northern Democrats stood faithfully by 
Douglas. The southern men left the convention and 
nominated John C. Breckinridge of Kentucky. ' Later, 
at Baltimore Douglas was named. 

444. Lincoln, the winner. The Republicans, luU of 
enthusiasm, met at Chicago. Seward had been a trusted 
leader, but many remembered his "higher law" doctrine 



THE POLITICAL CONFLICT 



and his "irrepressible conflict" speech. ^^^ They thought 
Lincoln a safer man. The border states of the North 
were all for him and he was nominated. Bell of Tennessee 
was put up by a convention of Union men. They declared 
that the way to settle the slavery question was to cease 
talking about it and to stand by the "Constitution, the 
Union, and the enforcement of the laws." 

Lincoln won with a people's vote of over 1,800,000 and 
with 180 of the electoral vote. Douglas came next with 
over 1,375,000 votes, but with only 12 electoral votes. 
Breckinridge, who got over 100,000 votes in the North, 
in all had only a few more than 800,000 votes, with 72 




TH2 NOMINATION OF LINCOLN AT CHICAGO 



electoral votes. Bell received less support from the 
people, only 640,000 votes, but won 39 electoral votes. 
What will the South do now? vSouthern leaders had 
said Lincoln's election would be a cause for secession. 
But the North thought this talk mere bluster. As the 



THE SOUTH SECEDES 287 

campaign showed Lincoln's election to be certain, the 
grumbling and threats grew greater. Douglas made a 
journey to the South to appeal to southerners not to leave 
the Union, but his trip was in vain. 

THE SOUTH SECEDES. CONCILIATION FAILS 

445. South Carolina leads in secession; other states 
follow. South Carolina acted first. A convention was 
quickly called and an "Ordinance of secession" intro- 
duced. It was short, but men listened intently while 
it was read. This ordinance simply repealed the act by 
which South Carolina had ratified the Constitution (§256). 
It was passed without one opposing vote. The people 
of Charleston were beside themselves with joy at being 
free from the Union. They did not yet know the full 
meaning of this act or dream of what was to follow. 

Six other states followed South Carolina's lead : Florida, 
Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas. 
In some of these states many Union men made powerful 
speeches pointing out what the South had gained from a 
union which it had controlled. But in the end they went 
with their states. The able and upright Alexander H. 
Stephens was such a man. 

446. The right to secede. When the Constitution was 
first made, only a few men denied the right of a state to 
leave the Union. Threats of secession had been made at 
various times in both the North and the South. But 
gradually the North came to be devoted to the nation and 
to deny the right of a state to secede. At the same time 
the South gradually came to be the champion of this 
right. Hence the southern people denied that they were 
"rebels," and declared that they were engaging in a 
movement which the Constitution did not forbid. 



2 8S 



THE POLITICAL CON-FLICT 



The South declared that secession was the only way 
left to protect its rights. It charged that Lincoln had 
been elected because he opposed slavery. The Abolition- 
ists, they said, favored abolishing slavery everywhere; it 
was only a question of time until the whole North, with 
its vast crowds of foreigners, would come to this point 
of view\ Hence, for the South secession was a necessity. 

The North could point to its Free-Soil and Republican 
platforms expressly denying the right to touch slavery in 
the states where it already existed. Lincoln wrote to 
Alexander H. Stephens pointing out this fact. The 
North also held with Jackson and Webster that this 
Union was a government of the people and could be 
destroyed only by a successful rebellion. 

447. The southern Confederacy formed (1861). Dele- 
gates from the seceded states met at once and formed a 

government at Montgomery, 
Alabama. Jefferson Davis 
(§426) was elected president 
and Alexander H. Stephens 
vice-president. They changed 
the old Constitution in several 
important points. (1) The 
term of the president was made 
six years without reelection. 
(2) Cabinet members were 
allowed to address Congress 
and to debate bills. (3) The 
states were made sovereign. 
(4) Slavery was protected in 
the territories and the states. 

448. Buchanan uncertain. The rush of events in the 
South carried men off their feet. Buchanan was in a hard 




JEFFERSON DAVIS 




^'^ " PA CI FI 



TTIE SOUTH SECEDES 



289 




M.KXAN'DKR II. STEPHENS 



position. His Cabinet was made up partly of southern 
men. His message did not help the North: states had 
no right to secede, but no power 
was given the president to pre- 
vent them doing so. Northern 
men thought of what Jackson 
had done (§404). 

When the southern members 
left the Cabinet to join their 
states, northerners were put in 
their places. Buchanan seemed 
to take courage. He sent a ship- 
load of supplies to Fort Sumter. 
Guns in Charleston harbor fired 
on the ship ' and she returned 
without reaching the fort. 

449. Can war be prevented? 
Neither side wanted war. Good men on both sides tried 
to prevent it. The North tried to get the southern states 
back into the Union. How could this be done? Men 
thought at once of the old plan of compromise. 

Crittenden of Kentucky, who had taken Clay's place, 
offered a plan of compromise: (i) All territory north 
of 36° 30' was to be free, and all south slave. (2) When 
new states came into the Union, they might decide to be 
free or slave. (3) Congress was denied all power over 
slavery in the states where it already existed. 

This plan touched the heart of the Republican platform, 
and Republican leaders would not accept it. Many 
people in both sections were sorely disappointed over 
the failure. 

Virginia sent forth a call for a convention of states. 
No seceded state responded, but other slave states sent 
11 



2go THE POLITICAL CONFLICT 

delegates. The twenty states represented at the conven- 
tion suggested a plan somewhat like the Crittenden 
Compromise. Congress refused to pass it also. War 
seemed sure to come. Men said they would wait and see. 

450. Will Lincoln be inaugurated (1861)? Lincoln 
spoke encouraging words to his home people as he left 
for Washington. He had kept his eye on the movement 
of things. All along the way he was cheered by the 
hearty greetings of the people. The great West spoke 
to them again, especially at Independence Hall,'^** Phila- 
delphia, where Lincoln raised a flag. Rumors of a plot 
led him, against his will, to go secretly the rest of the way. 

In the meantime the country was full of excitement. 
The Confederacy w-as getting ready for war — preparing 
soldiers and raising money. Washington City was full of 
people who wanted the Confederacy to succeed. All sorts 
of disturbing rumors spread around. General Scott took 
command of the Union forces and was ready for the worst. 

451. The inaugural address. In his inaugural address 
Lincoln let it be known just where he stood, (i) His 
great aim was to preserve the Union. (2) No state 
could secede. (3) The laws would be enforced in all 
states. (4) Forts in all states would be occupied and 
held by the government. (5) He closed with these words : 
"In your hands, my dissatisfied fellow-countrymen, and 
not in mine, is the momentous issue of civil war. The 
government will not assail you. You can have no 
conflict without being yourselves the aggressors. We are 
not enemies, but friends. The mystic chords of memory, 
stretching from every battle field and patriot grave to every 
living heart and hearthstone all over this broad land, will 
yet swell the chorus of the Union when again touched, as 
they sureh^ will be, b}^ the better angels of our nature." 



THE .SOUTH SECEDES 291 

Douglas and his friends, standing around Lincoln, let 
it be known that the address pleased them. But the 
South saw no word of compromise in this speech. 

452. Both presidents wait. Up to March 4 the Union 
may be said to have had the advantage from not being the 
aggressor. The Confederacy had seceded and had seized 
forts, arsenals, and ports which in the eyes of the North 
belonged to the Union. The South, too, had fired on the 
ship loaded with provisions for Fort Sumter. Neither 
side wanted to arouse public feeling by beginning the war. 
Hence they waited and watched for several weeks. 

SUGGESTED READINGS 

Reierences for teachers: Wilson, Division and Reunion, 1S5-212; 
Morse, Lincoln, I, 166-228; Elson, Side Lights on American History, I, 
294-336; II, 1-24, 40-46; Bassett, Short History, chap, xxiii, 497-504; 
Dodd, Expansion and Conflict, II, 251-359, 384-416, 440-502; III, 
chap, xiii; McAIaster, History of the American People, VIII, chap, xcvi ; 
Hart, Contemporaries, III, chaps, viii-ix; IV, 104-118, 155-159, 180- 
186; Hart, Patriots and Statesmen, V, 130-305; Johnson, Stephen A. 
Douglas, chap, xviii; Juhan, P^'rsonal Recollections, 134-150. 

References for pupils: Mabie, Heroes Every Child Should Know, 
309-319; Baldwin, Four Great Ajner leans, 186-246; Williams, Successful 
Americans; Barstow, A New Nation, 166-180, 186-209; Hart, Source 
Book, 2S4-296; Hart, Source Reader, II, 1-74, 177-196; Mace, 
Abraham Lincoln, 101-148; ChampHn, Young Folks' History of War 
for the Union, 24-49; Eggleston, Household History, 103-310. 

Fiction: Eggleston, Two Gentlemen of Virginia; Trowbridge, 
Neighbor Jackwood; Civil War Stories Retold from St. Nicholas. 

PROBLEMS .\ND PROJECTS 

I. You are an antislavery senator. Write to the Neiv York 
Tribune the story of the northern attack on Douglas in the Senate 
and in the nation as the Kansas-Nebraska Bill passes. 2. You are 
a member of the Emigrant Aid Society. Write a story back home 
telling how you got to Kansas and what you found. 3. The entire 
class attends the Freeport debate and writes its impressions of the 
crowd, of the speakers, and of the arguments. 4. Attend the Demo- 
cratic Convention in i860 and report for a northern paper. 5. Go 
with Douglas to the South. Tell w^hat he says to southerners and 
what they say to him. ' 



CHAPTER XVI r I 

THE WAR BETWEEN THE UNION AND 
THE CONFEDERACY 



THE WAR BEGINS 

453. Fort Sumter falls (April 14). Waiting time was 
now over. Lincoln ordered supplies to be sent to Major 
Anderson in Fort Sumter. Davis ordered the guns in 
Charleston to fire on the fort. Great crowds gathered 
to witness the opening event of the war. All day the 
little band in the fort bravely defended the flag. By after- 
noon the fort was on fire, and the walls were broken in 
raany places. Smoke and flying cinders almost choked the 
men. Some lay upon the ground and covered their faces 
with wet cloths. Others crept to the portholes for a 
breath of fresh air. Explosion followed explosion, but 




THE INTERIOR OF FORT SUMTER AFTER THE BOMBARDMENT 

the men \\ould not surrender. Now and then they 
fired a ^un to show that they were "holding the fort." 

292 



HE WAR BEGINS 



^93 



On Sunday afternoon Major Anderson, without the loss 
of a single man of the 128, with torn flag flying and 




THE WAR SPIRIT IN TUli NOR HI 



with drums beating, surrendered. Charleston and the 
Confederacy went wild with excitement over the victory. 

454. Lincoln's call. That Sunday afternoon Douglas 
(§431), the political rival of Lincoln, called at the White 
House. On Monday morning two telegrams sped On 
the wings of lightning to the nation;, one from Lincoln 
calling for 75,000 men; another from Douglas telling his 
fellow Democrats that he stood by the President.'-^' 

On every farm, in every town and city in the North 
was heard the answer to the call. In the pulpit and press 
as well as on the platform went up the cry: "The 
Union forever!" Flags, fife, and drum helped kindle 
the flame of war. From every walk in life poured forth 
volunteers. The foreigner and the native-born answered 
by offering their lives. A mighty wave of patriotic 
feeling was sweeping the North. Now there were no 
Democrats, no Republicans, only Union men. 

455. Other states secede when war comes. The same 
feeling, the same devotion, the same wild cry for the 



294 



THE CIVIL WAR 




THE WAR SPIRIT IN THE SOUTH 



defense of their homes, was heard in the South. Men 
were quickly formed in companies, drilled and armed 

for the conflict. Here, 
too, the fife and drum 
aroused enthusiasm for 
the Confederacy. 

Four states — Virginia, 
Tennessee, North Caro- 
lina, and Arkansas — 
joined the Confederacy. 
The border slave 
states must now choose 
between the Union and 
the Confederacy. It 
was not easy to do this, for the people of these states 
were divided. Delaware, Maryland, Kentucky, and 
Missouri — were faithful to the Union. 

The mountainous parts of North Carolina, Tennessee, 
and Virginia contained thousands of Union men. The 
people of West Virginia, as it is now called, formed a 
separate state whick was admitted to the Union (1863). 

The danger of this new secession was seen in the fact 
that Virginia lies across the Potomac from Washington, 
and that General Lee,'^^ a native Virginian, threw in his 
lot with the Confederacy. The Confederate capital was 
removed from Montgomery to Richmond. 

456. Strength of the two sections (1861). The North 
had a population of 22,000,000; the South but 9,000,000, 
and 3,500,000 of these were negroes. In the North there 
were over 5,000,000 men able to bear arms, while in the 
Confederate states there were hardly more than 1,500,000. 
In a long, hard war wealth counts. The North had 
hundreds of mills and factories, while the Confederacy 
11 



THE WAR BEGINS 295 

had but few. Iron works, shipyards, and hundreds of 
banks with plenty of money, were found in the North. 
The Confederacy could boast of but one irdn mill, at 
Richmond, although she soon set up another at Atlanta. 
Her clothing factories were few. There was but one great 
city in the Confederacy, New Orleans, and the Union 
forces captured that in the second year of the war. The 
North had two and one-half times as many miles of rail- 
roads. More important still, the North had the iron 
mills and the shops to repair the railroads when there 
was need. The South had none. 

Is it any wonder that the people in the North thought 
the war would soon be over? 

But it was not so one-sided as it seemed. The Con- 
federates were fighting at home for their own firesides. 
They knew the ground better than the North. They 
had the help and sympathy of their own people. Even 
the negro slaves did not rise and murder their masters, 
but served them in the army or, most important of all, 
they remained on the plantations and raised food for the 
Confederate armies. 

The Confederacy had high hopes of sending cotton 
abroad to pay for guns and ships and to get gold. But 
the blockade stopped that, and made other imported 
things scarce. 

457. The first military objects of the war. Since 
Richmond had been made the capital of the Confederacy, 
the Union armies had two important objects in the war: 
to defeat Lee's army and take Richmond, and to open 
the Mississippi to its mouth. The navy had for its pur- 
pose the shutting of the ports of the South so tight that 
no ships could pass out or in. The political object of 
the war was the preservation of the Union. 



29f> 



THE CIVIL WAR 




BEAUKmiAKl) 



458. The Battle of Bull Run. What it taught. Both 
sections gathered troops near Manassas Junction, about 

thirty miles from Washington. 
The Union army was under 
McDowell and the Confed- 
erates were under Beauregard. 
Without McDowell's knowing 
it, Joseph E. Johnston was 
bringing reenforcements for 
the Confederates. The attack 
was made July 21. At first the 
advantage was with the Union 
or Federal troops.'" But 
Johnston's men turned the 
battle into an awful Union 
rout . Frightened soldiers, con- 
gressmen, and citizens rushed madly back on Washington. 
The South was elated over the victory. They declared 
it proved the superior fighting qualities of their boys, 
At any rate it opened the eyes of the North. Congress 
at once proceeded to raise 500,000 men and $500,000,000 
to carry on the conflict. 

George B. McClellan, who had been successful in 
western Virginia, was called to head the Army of the 
Potomac. For months he drilled the army until he 
made it a "fine working machine." 

THE BLOCK.VDE OF CONFEDERATE PORTS 

459. What will England and France do? The South 
was a tobacco and cotton raising country (§401). With 
cotton it had to buy many things abroad. Therefore 
Lincoln struck a mighty blow at the Confederacy when 
he ordered her ports closed from Virginia to Texas. 



THE BLOCKADE OF CONFEDERATE FORTS 297 

But France and England were interested. Their fac- 
tories would have to close, their laborers starve, and their 
merchants lose thousands upon thousands of dollars. 
Would England and France bear this loss in silence? It 
was hardly to be expected. 

The South hoped these nations would break the block- 
ade. This would mean war with the North. The North 
knew that England had long ago abolished slavery, and 
therefore expected her sympathy. Both Great Britain 
and France agreed to remain neutral, but to recognize 
the "war rights" of the Confederates. 

460. The hard lot of a neutral. We know the lot of a 
neutral is a hard one (§289). The Confederacy sent 
Slidell to France and Mason to England to ask that the 
independence of the South be recognized. At Havana 
they took passage on an English ship, the "Trent." The 
next day a United States warship commanded by Captain 
Wilkes stopped the "Trent" and seized the Confederates. 

To the people of the North, Wilkes was a hero. But 
the people of England were angry at this "attack" on 
their flag. Both had forgotten their own history (§289). 

But Lincoln had not forgotten and surrendered the 
prisoners. Queen Victoria saw the danger of war in her 
government's letter to the United States, and so changed 
it that it did not stir angry feelings in this country. 

461. Battle between the "Monitor" and "Merrimac" 
(1862). The Confederates had one hope of breaking 
the blockade, the "Merrimac." She was in the Norfolk 
navy yard. They had covered her with railroad iron. 
She steamed into Hampton Roads and plunged her great 
ram into the wooden ship "Cumberland" and chased 
the "Congress" and burned her. One great day's work 
for the Confederac}^ ! All Washington was frightened. 



298 



THE CIVIL WAR 



That night a queer-looking craft sUpped into Hampton 
Roads, the "Monitor" built by Ericsson. She was an 
"ironclad." Her deck was just above the water. On this 
was a revolving turret or iron cylinder containing two 
big guns. The next day the battle began and continued 
for two hours. An officer on the "Merrimac" asked a 
gunner why he had ceased firing. ' ' I can do her as much 
damage by snapping my thumb at her every two minutes 
and a half," was his answer. The "Merrimac" steamed 
back to Norfolk. 

Neither side won. But the advantage was with the 
Union, for the blockade went on, and the government at 
Washington built many ironclads while the Confederacy 
could put out only a few. This marked the beginning of 
warships of iron and steel. 

462. Blockade runners and privateers. Europe sent 
small, swift ships to slip into southern ports on dark and 
stormy nights. Some of these got away with cotton for 
the European trade. Some carried it to the West Indies, 
where different nations bought it at a very high price. 




THE STRUGGLE BETWEEN THE "MONITOR" AND "MERRIMAC" 

So high was the. price that it paid the blockade runners 
even if once in a while one got caught. 



CAMPAIGN FOR OPENING THE MISSISSIPPI 



299 




»^ 



But the quantity smuggled through was small. For only 
about one bale of cotton now reached Europe where before 
the war more 
than one hundred 
reached it. Prac- 
tically there was 
no gold in circula- 
tion. Except cot- 
ton, 'every thing in 
the Confederacy 
grew scarce and 
prices soared 
higher. Would the 
blockade finally- 
force her to give 

up the struggle? a blockade runner loaded wnu cotton- for i:u:^op 
CAMPAIGN FOR THE OPENING OF THE MISSISSIPPI 

. 463. Beginnings of the great campaign (1862). Doug- 
las had said that if the Confederates held the Mississippi 
"grass would grow in the streets of western cities." 
Both sides tried to get hold of Missouri and Kentucky. 
While the governments of both states had sympathized 
with the Confederacy, the people were largely for the Union. 

In Missouri, Francis P. Blair and General Lyon were 
too quick for the Confederates. Lyon was killed at 
Wilson Creek, but the Confederates, by the aid of Grant's 
victories, were driven into Arkansas. 

In Kentucky, General Grant, with the aid of a fleet 
of gunboats, had captured Forts Henry and Donelson 
(February, 1862), only a few miles apart on the Tennessee 
and Cumberland rivers. Fifteen thousand Confederates 
were captured at Donelson. It was the first big battle of 
the Civil War and brought Grant great praise. 



300 



THE CIVIL WAR 



But he lost his hard-earned honors by allowing himself 
to be beaten back in the two days' battle of vShiloh, or 




ONL OF FOOTE S. C UNBOATS UbED IN THE B-VXTLFS OX THE OHI 1 
WD MISSISSIPPI RI\ERS 

Pittsburg Landing (April o, 7). The Confederates lost 
gallant General Albert Sidney Johnston ""^ and were 
forced to retreat to Corinth. 

A union of Federal armies brought a hundred thousand 
men into the field. Corinth fell without a blow, and 
Commodore Foote forced Memphis to surrender. The 
Mississippi was now open down to Vicksburg. 

464. The capture of New Orleans (April 25). The 
Confederate forts along the Atlantic were already falling. 
To Captain Farragut was given the duty of capturing 
New Orleans. The Confederates had fortified it well. 

The fleet cut the cables across the harbor, bombarded 
the forts for five days, passed them, and destroyed the gun- 
boats. Hundreds fled the doomed city, 'and thousands of 
bales of cotton were burned. The fall of New Orleans 
was a hard blow. It was a great cotton city, and its loss 
discouraged Confederate friends in England. 

465. The Confederate counterstroke (1862). To offset 
these victories, General Bragg, now commanding the 
Confederates in the West, slipped by General Buell and 



THE STRUGGLE BETWEEN' THE CAPITALS 



,^oi 



rushed across Tennessee and Kentucky, going straight 
for Louisville on the Ohio. Buell outraced him, reaching 
Louisville first. After the battle of Perr^^nlle, Bragg 
retreated to Murfreesboro. 

General Rosecrans took Buell's place. The close of the 
old and the opening of the new year at Murfreesboro 
marked one of the hardest battles of the war. General 
Thomas hekl the Union center in spite of all attacks. 
The Confederates claimed the victory. In the meantime, 
Grant defeated but failed to capture Price at luka. 

THE STRUGGLE BETWEEN THE TWO CAPITALS 

466. The Peninsular Campaign (1862). The two capi- 
tals could be attacked directly across the country, by the 
Shenandoah, and by way of Chesapeake Bay. No matter 
which way was chosen, the others had to be watched. 




alAb/anka \ .ii^ \ '^s,^ 



CAMPAIGNS FOR THE WESTERN STATES 



The North grew tired of waiting for McClellan to attack 
Richmond. But he finalh' went down Chesapeake Bay, 



302 



THE CIVIL WAR 




Started up the peninsula, lying between the York and 
James rivers, and fought his way to White House Landing, 

within sight of the 
spires of Richmond. 
Joseph E. Johnston 
(§458) attacked his 
army with great fury. 
The progress of the 
Confederates was 
checked. General 
Johnston was wounded 
and Lee took his place 

(§457)- 

Stonewall Jackson 
and his "foot cavalry" 
dashed through the 
Shenandoah, defeated 
the Union armies protecting that route, and were soon 
back with Lee's army. McDowell, protecting the direct 
route, was expecting Jackson to attack Washington and 
withdrew to defend the Union capital. 

General Stuart's Confederate cavalry added to the excite- 
ment and alarm in Washington. It circled McClellan's 
army, tore up railroads, and burned supplies. 

467. The "Seven Days" battle. The second battle 
of Bull Run. Lee now attacked with great fury and 
forced McClellan to retreat (July). The Army of the 
Potomac* went back to Washington. 

Lee struck a terrific blow at Pope's forces, a new army 
just made up, and defeated them on the ill-fated field of 
Bull Run (August). 

468. Lee's first invasion (September). Flushed with 
victory, Lee crossed the Potomac and was on Maryland soil. 



GEORGE BRINTON MC CLELL.'\N 



THE STRUGGLE BETWEEN THE CAPITALS 



303 



In the battle of Antietam, one of the greatest battles of the 
war, McClellan attacked Lee. Victory was claimed by 
both sides. Lee retired to Virginia, but McClellan failed 
to attack him as he recrossed the Potomac. For this 
disastrous failure McClellan was removed, and General 
Burnside was given command of the Army of the Potomac. 




THE EASTERN CAMPAIGNS 



Just as soon as the Union army had rested, Burnside 
led it across the Rappahannock River and struck Lee's 
army on the Heights of Fredericksburg. Lee defeated 



,^o4 



THE CIVIL WAR 




ROBERT EDWARD LEE 



him with greater loss to the Union army than in any pre- 
vious battle. ' ' Fighting Joe ' ' Hooker was given command, 

and the Union army rested 
and was reenforced. 

UPROOTING SLAVERY 

469. Slavery in the war. 

Lincoln had always been 
against slavery. He did not 
hate the slaveholder, but he 
did hate the rule of one man 
over another. 

When slaves escaped within 
the Federal lines, General 
Butler called them "contra- 
band of war," that is, prop- 
erty which may lawfully be 
taken in war. Others refused to return the negroes to 
their owners. Some Union generals set them free, but 
Lincoln refused to permit this. He wanted the Union slave 
states to free their own slaves and to receive pay for them. 

470. Congress runs ahead of the President on slavery. 
Early in the war Congress freed the slaves in the District 
of Columbia and in the territories. Congress paid the 
slaveholders in the District but not in the territories. 

471. The Emancipation Proclamation (1862). Lincoln- 
had repeatedly denied his right to interfere with slavery 
in the states where it existed. Hence he early tried to 
get the border slave states in the Union to abolish slavery. 
He promised to pay owners for their slaves. He was 
sure this would be a blow from which the Confederates 
could not recover. The border states did not agree with 
him, and he had to face emancipation by his own hand. 



3o6 THE CIVIL WAR 

He was forced to act. The North was making Httle 
headway against the Confederacy. The cost of Hves was 
running into thousands, and the debt into milHons. There 
was bitter suffering in England for want of cotton. Fac- 
tories were closed and the government might recognize 
the Confederacy as an independent nation. 

But did Lincoln have the right to free the slaves in the 
Confederate states? As commander-in-chief of the army 
and navy (Art. II, §2, ^i), he believed he could do 
anything in reason to weaken the Confederate cause. 
Emancipation, therefore, was a war act, and an act that 
could not have been carried out in time of peace. 

472. Reads Proclamation to Cabinet. In July, before 
his assembled Cabinet, Lincoln read the Proclamation of 
Emancipation. He told them his mind was made up. 
He finally put the Proclamation aside to await a Union 
victory. The battle of Antietam came (September 17), 
and Lincoln sent forth a warning proclamation ^"^^ that if 
the Confederate armies had not laid down their arms by 
January i, 1863, he would declare their slaves free. This 
was regarded in the South as an empty threat, but he 
issued the Proclamation on the day named (Januafy i, 
1863). 

473. Not all slaves set free by the Proclamation. The 
Proclamation did 'not touch a single slave in the Union 
slave states nor in those states or parts of states recap- 
tured by the Federal armies. Lincoln h5,d not the power 
to go farther. Certain of these states — Maryland, Ken- 
tucky, Tennessee, and Missouri — did finally take steps to 
abolish slavery. Only by amendment to the Constitution 
could Congress and the people abolish it by national 
action. To settle the question forever, the Thirteenth 
Amendment was added to the Constitution (1865), 



nECISTVE BATTLES 



507 



474. Effect of emancipation. The Confederacy rather 
made sjjort of the Proclamation, but Davis denounced it. 
Southern sympathizers in the North used strong language 
in attacking it. They declared that it was proof positive 
that the purpose of the war was to free the slaves and not 
to save the Union. The Proclamation was hailed with 
delight by friends of the North in England. 

475. The negro soldier. Shall the negro be used as a 
soldier? The North said "Yes," but the South said "No." 
There were thousands of northern people, also, who were 
opposed to the negro's carrying a gun. They argued, as did 
southerners, that it was wrong for him to shoot down a 
white man. Over 1 80,000 negroes w^ore the Union uniform. 
As a rule they were put to work that required no fighting. 
Slaves, employed in fields and camp, had all along helped 
the Confederate cause, and just before the war closed 
the South was getting ready to use negroes as soldiers. 



DECISIVE BATTLES OF THE WAR 



476. Chancellorsville and the 
death of Jackson. Hooker crossed 
the Rappahannock and struck 
Lee's army at Chancellorsville 
(May 1-4, 1863). Hisarmy out- 
numbered the Confederates 
almost two to one, but he per- 
mitted Jackson to make one of 
his lightning-like marches and 
rout his right wing. This was 
a terrific battle — in all there 
were over thirty thousand men lost. 
Jackson, no doubt accidentally shot by some one on his 
own side, could not be made good by the Confederacy. "'- 




THOMAS JON-\THW ("STONE- 
W \l L ) JACKSON 

The loss of Stonewall 



3o8 



THE CIVIL WAR 



477. The Gettysburg campaign (1863). Stirred by 
Lee's victories, the South called upon him to carry the 
war to the North. He gathered the best army that ever 
marched under the "Stars and Bars," over seventy thou- 
sand strong, and headed for Gettysburg. The North was 
in terror. Lincoln called for a hundred thousand men. 
As the Army of^the Potomac, ninety thousand strong, 

was hastening to head off Lee, 
Hooker was removed, and 
Aleade given command. The 
armies met at Gettysburg, 
the Confederates on Seminary 
Ridge, and the Federals on 
Cemetery Ridge. For two 
days they fought without 
a gain on either side. But 
everybody expected the third 
day to end the battle. 

478. Pickett's charge. 
Hidden from view by the for- 
est on the slopes of Seminary 
Ridge, General Lee on July 3 massed the flower of his 
army. He was to make a last desperate assault upon 
the Union center. At midday Lee tried for two hours to 
•silence Meade's guns by artillery fire. As the clouds of 
smoke rolled away, fifteen thousand Confederates, formed 
like a great wedge and led by General Pickett, moved 
across the valley. 

Nearly a mile away General Hancock's men lay watch- 
ing the onrushing lines of gray. Half the distance was 
passed when the Union artillery blazed forth. Great holes 
were torn in the Confederate ranks. But never falter- 
ing, they closed up and kept right on. The long line 




C.EORGE C. MEADE 



DECISIVE BATTLES 



\0() 



of Union rifles now sent forth their rain of. death. The 
ranks of the Confederates grew thin. But on they came. 
General Armistead broke through Hancock's line and fell, 
waving his hat on the point of his sword. There was a 
fierce hand-to-hand struggle. The Union troops dashed 
forward, and Pickett sounded "retreat." High tide at 
Gettysburg '''■■' had been reached. 

479. The results. Lee's invasion had failed. Nearly 
forty thousand dead or wounded lay upon the field. 
The Union army was so crippled that it did not attack as 
Lee crossed the Potomac. The awful losses suffered by 
Lee's army were hard to make up. Lincoln was sorely 
disappointed that A/[eade did not attack before Lee crossed 
the river and end the war in a crushing victory. We 
must now turn to the campaign for the Mississippi. 




^;ykMV^^-.>^^y,;;/4 



PICKETT S CHARGE 

480. The campaign for Vicksburg (1863). General 
Grant late in 1862 prepared to capture Vicksburg. This 



3IO 



THE CIVIL WAR 



city had been well fortified to protect the streams of food 
that crossed the Mississippi for the Confederate armies. 

Grant drove General 
Pemberton into Vicksburg 
by a series of brilliant 
dashes. General vSheridan 
was Grant's right-hand 
man in this decisive siege, 
which was pressed with 
great vigor. 

Da}^ and night tiie two 
armies bombarded each 
other. Sharpshooters 
picked off the unlucky 
man who showed his head 
above the breastworks. 




THE CAMPAIGN AROUND VICKSBURG Whllc rcstlug from fight- 

ing, sometimes Federals and Confederates joked each 
other and traded things dear to the heart of a soldier. 

The houses of the city were torn with shot and shell 
until people had to dig caves to hide in. Food began to 
fail, and mule meat became a luxury. Both day and 
night the people were kept in terror by the noise of can- 
non, the bursting of shells, and the explosion of mines. 
The citizens of Vicksburg as well as the soldiers were 
desperate. They sent up a white flag on July 4. The 
surrender took place one day after the Union victory 
at Gettysburg. How the North rejoiced! These two 
victories produced a great effect on public sentiment 
throughout Europe. 

A few days afterward (July 9) Port Hudson surrendered 
to General Banks, and as the great President remarked: 
"The Father of Waters again goes unvexed to the sea." 



THE WAR AND POLITICS 311 

481. The battles around Chattanooga (1863). The 

Confederates under Bragg had been driven out of 
Chattanooga by Rosecrans. Bragg (§465), reenforced by 
Longstreet, struck the Union army at Chickamauga and 
sent it reehng into Chattanooga. But General Thomas 
held the Union left wing and saved the army from greater 
defeat (§465). The soldiers ever after called Thomas the 
"Rock of Chickamauga." 

Bragg occupied the heights of Lookout Mountain and 
Missionary Ridge. Rosecrans was besieged. The North 
was alarmed. Lincoln ordered Grant, Sherman, and 
Hooker to relieve Rosecrans. Grant established a new 
"cracker" line for supplies. The Union forces stormed 
Lookout Mountain and Missionary Ridge and drove the 
Confederates into Georgia. Bragg turned over his com- 
mand to General Joseph E. Johnston (§466). Grant had 
won another campaign for the Union. 

THE WAR AND POLITICS 

482. The change in public opinion. With the first cry 
of war both North and South seemed to be as one man 
for the Union or for secession. The war was fought on 
southern soil. This compelled men of the South to 
unite. Public opinion would not permit southern 
opposition to the war except in the mountains (§455). 

Some faultfinding arose because Davis took too much 
power into his hands. Neither his Cabinet nor his Con- 
gress was made up of great men. The ablest men of the 
South were her military leaders. When the Confederacy 
began to fail, the blame fell almost entirely upon Davis. 

After the death of Douglas, w^hen it had become clearer 
that the war would be long and hard, people in the North 
began to take sides on different questions. The result 



312 



THE CIVIL WAR 



was a Union party and a Peace party. The Republicans 
and the "War Democrats" were for the Union. The 
persons who wanted peace at any price tried to hold on 
to the name of Democrats. They often opposed measures 
for carrying on the war. 

After emancipation, Lincoln's enemies grew in number. 
Elections in the fall showed that the Democrats came 
near having a majority in the state governments and in 
Congress. 

483. Vigorous opposition to the war. The draft riots. 
Many people who were born in the South lived in the 
North. It was natural for many of them to oppose the 
war. But others disapproved the "high-handed" means 
taken by Lincoln to suppress southern resistance. On 
the "stump," in the newspapers, and in Congress itself, 
the opponents of Lincoln were loud in faultfinding. They 




NEW YORK DR.\FT RIOT 



formed secret organizations in the northern border states 
to free the Confederate prisoners and to compel the 



THE WAR AXD POLITICS ;, i,^ 

government to make peace with the Confederacy. The 
government arrested the ringleaders and threw them into 
prison. ^'^^ 

All over the North there was opposition to the draft. 
It was very pronounced in New York City. The mob 
there stopped the draft, burned houses, and killed many 
l^ersons. Its anger seemed aimed at the negroes. The 
riot was the more dangerous since it took place when 
Meade and Lee were in their death-grapple at Gettysburg. 
The United States troops had to be called in. The riot 
was suppressed, and the draft went on. 

484. Lincoln, the president (1864). Lincoln was the 
most beloved president we ever had. The men who 
hated him did not know him. No president ever wrote 
so tenderly to people in distress, or sent messages to 
Congress breathing such pure and hopeful patriotism. 
All people who came to talk to him, whether high or low, 
rich or poor, happy or distressed, saw him. No one ever 
turned a more sympathetic ear to the soldier in distress, 
or to the broken-hearted mother appealing for the pardon 
of her son sentenced to be shot. He set aside a part of 
his time to visit the wounded Federal and Confederate 
soldiers in Washington hospitals.'"'' 

He was misunderstood because he was not severe in his 
dealings with men at such a time as this, and because no 
matter how solemn the occasion, he always had a funny 
story to relieve the strain. He gave Horace Greeley, 
editor of the N'cw York Tribune, an important mission 
when Greeley was heaping blame upon him. When one 
of his Cabinet was trying to defeat him for nomination 
for the presidency, he appointed him chief justice. He bore 
patiently the insults of another member because he was 
a tireless worker for the Union. Lincoln was a eood man. 



314 THE CIVIL WAR 

485. Reelected president (1864). Dissatisfied Repub- 
licans opposed to Lincoln could not agree on a man for 
president. The Peace Democrats nominated McClellan 
(§458), but he rejected their platform, for it declared the 
war a failure. At first the campaign seemed to be going 
against Lincoln. How could the Union be saved if he 
were defeated? Fortunately, a number of great victories 
came just before the election. Besides, the people were 
convinced that Davis demanded the independence of 
the Confederacy as the price of peace. Lincoln carried 
the people's vote by more than four hundred thousand. 
This was the largest majority yet given a president. 

SUGGESTED READINGS 

References for teachers: Wilson, Division and Reunion, 213-228; 
Morse, Lincoln ("American Statesmen Seri ,c, }, I, 248-387; II, 1-30, 
95-367; Fiske, Mississippi Valley in the Civil War, 1-5, 52-56; Grant, 
Memoirs, I, ^4-584; II, 31-38; Hart. Contemporaries, IV, 216-282; 
Rhodes, History of the United States, III, chaps, xiv-xvi. 

References for pupils: Coffin, Drum Beat of the Nation, 48-414; 
Coffin, Marching to Victory, 16-455; Mace, Stories of Heroism, 286- 
307, (Lincoln, Lee, and Grant); Mace, Lincoln, 136-179; Mabie, 
Heroes Every Child Should Know, 289-308; Hart, Source Book, 299- 
327; Hart, Source Reader, II, 75-175, 200-418; Barstow, The Civil 
War, 3-1 17; Champlin, Young Folks' History of the War for the Union, 
50-403; Eggleston, Household History, 311-329. 

Fiction: Kerbey, The Boy Spy. 

PROBLEMS AND PROJECTS 

I . Describe the scenes in Fort Sumter and the scenes in Charleston 
at the time of the surrender. 2. When Sumter falls you go with 
Douglas to call on the President. Write what they probably said. 
3. Go from New York with the "Monitor" to Hampton Roads. 
Write about its battle with the " Merrimac." 4. Visit a hospital 
with Lincoln and tell of his conversation with the boys. 5. You 
are a Confederate soldier in Pickett's great charge. You get back 
safe. Describe what it was like. 



CHAPTER XIX 



THE END OF THE STRUGGLE 

THE rONFEDERACY GRADUALLY WEARING OUT 

486. Grant the Union head (1864). Lincoln had a long, 
hard search for a leader for his arniA^ The Confederacy 
had a leader from the beginning. After Chattanooga, 
Lincoln made Grant '•"■' lieutenant-general in charge of 
the Union armies. 

With an army of 120,000 men Grant plunged into the 
Wilderness in Virginia, where he met Lee with an army 
only half as large. Grant made no headway and decided 
upon a flank movement to the left. But Lee faced him 
at Spottsylvania. Hard 
fighting again took place. 
Another flanking movement 
to the left, but there was 
Lee again at Cold Harbor I 
Grant ordered a direct 
assault. The North shud- 
dered when it heard his loss. 

Lee's works proved too 
strong, and Grant moved to 
the left, crossed the James, 
and began the siege of 
Petersburg. In less than 
eight weeks the Union loss 
amounted to fifty thousand ! 
In the same time Lee had lost only twenty thousand, 
but his ranks could hardly be filled again. The Con- 
federacy now had only young boys and old men left. 




ULYSSH'; S. GRANT 



3I.T 



3 1 '* 



THE END OF THE STRUCxGLE 




SHERIDAN S RIDE AT CEDAR CKKliK 



487. In the Shenandoah (1864). To break Grant's 
grip Lee sent Early by way of the Shenandoah against 
Washington. The North was in terror until Grant sent 

more troops. Early 
fi il j:jli retreated, carrying 
^;'! food for Lee's army. 
Grant now sent 
General Sheridan to 
the Shenandoah with 
double the force Early 
had. Shendan suc- 
ceeded in defeating the 
Confederates in two 
battles, Winchester 
and Cedar Creek. At 
Cedar Creek Sheridan saved the day only by riding from 
Winchester, where he had spent the night. He ralHed 
his retreating men. 

Sheridan now began the work of destruction, making 
the Shenandoah impossible as a granary for Lee's army. 

488. The Hampton Roads Conference (1865). The 
Union victories in the fall of 1864 made everyone hope 
for earl}." peace. Friends on both sides persuaded Lincoln 
and Davis to send commissioners to Hampton Roads for 
a meeting to talk over plans of peace. Lincoln went and 
likewise Vice-President Stephens of the Confederacy. 
Lincoln's terms were: (i) the Confederacy to lay down 
its arms and submit to the Union; (2) to accept eman- 
cipation. Davis stood for one thing: the independence 
of the Confederacy. This Lincoln refused, but promised 
to try to obtain the consent of Congress to pay for the 
slaves. Had Davis been less determined, some agreement 
to Lincoln's terms might have been made. We can now 



THE CONFEDERACY WEARTXC OCT 



see what might have been saved: the assassination 
of Lincohi and the dark days of reconstruction! 

489. The campaign for Atlanta (1864). To Sherman 
fell the task of capturing Atlanta. It was an important 
railroad center with great factories. 

When Grant moved on Lee, Sherman nioved against 
Johnston at Dalton, Georgia. By repeated flanking 
movements backed by bold fighting Johnston was forced, 
in two months, south to Kenesaw Mountain. Here 
Sherman tried a direct assault, but, like Grant's (§486), 
it failed. Johnston retreated skillfully, as Lee had done. 










\i/ ^,. MunK-„,„er.T/ \ V \£-'-" = -l'>Ft. Pulaski 






^4,4^^"-'-"''''^^^>'^ " t^^'i^ ^ky 'w\ 



(,St..\ui:usfu)e 

OCEAN 



CULl-' OF MEXICO 



\J 

.Tauipa 



^ 



THE GEORGI.V C.\MPAIGN AND THE RED RIVER EXPEDITION 

Sherman""' was now within a few miles of Atlanta. The 
South was getting nervous, and Davis removed Johnston""'^ 
and put Hood in his place. Hood was a fighter. Battle 



3i« 



THE END OF THE STRUGGLE 




after battle followed, until Hood was driven into Atlanta. 
In order to escape a long siege, he blew up his powder 

magazines and left Atlanta 
(September 2). 

490. Farragut captures 
Mobile Bay (1864). In the 
meantime Mobile Bay had 
been captured. Blockade 
runners had found Mobile 
Bay a good place. From 
this point the Confederacy 
got European and other 
supplies. The entrance to 
the bay was strongly forti- 
fied and guarded by a 
monster ironclad, the 
"Tennessee." 

Farragut (§464) lashed his boats together two and 
two, and tied himself to the rigging of his ship. Here he 
directed the battle amid a storm of shot and shell from 
the Confederate batteries. It was terrific but short. 
He got past the forts with the loss of one vessel, but 
the Confederates lost their entire fleet. Breaking up 
blockade running here, together with the fall of Atlanta, 
was like cutting a main artery of the Confederacy. 

491. The blockade tightens. The Confederate navy 
destroyed. Day by day the blockade grew tighter. Only 
a few ships on the darkest nights dared steal in and out. 
The prices of things rose very high in the Confederacy. 
Everything made of iron grew extremely dear. Things 
to eat and wear were scarce and unbelievably high. 
The Confederate soldiers were not well fed nor well 
clothed, and medicines were hard to get. 



DAVID GLASGOW F.\RR.\GUT 



THE CONFEDERACY WEARING OUT 



319 



492. Confederate privateers. Early in the war the 

most famous cruiser of tlie Confederates was the "Sum- 
ter." She destroyed property right and left until she 
was captured. The "Florida," built in England for the 
Confederacy, was early captured. The "Alabama" was 
the "terror of the seas." She was built at Liverpool and 
destroyed over sixty merchant ships. She was sunk by the 
"Kearsarge" off the French coast (June, 1864). Another 
Confederate cruiser, the "Shenandoah," escaped into the 
Pacific and kept up her work until the end of the war. 

493. From Atlanta to the sea. Thomas' victory (1865). 
With sixty thousand veterans Sherman swept from At- 
lanta to the sea. He sent Lincoln this word : "A Christ- 
mas gift of the city of Savannah!" The destruction of 
property on this march caused deep hatred in the South. 




THE "kearsarge sinks THE "ALAB.\Ma" 



Hood struck at Sherman's line of supplies, but Sherman 
did not stop, for he had sent Thomas^*^* with another 
sixty thousand veterans after this Confederate general. 



320 



THE END OF THE STRUOGT.E 



With great fury Hood attacked Schofiield's division, a part 
of Thomas' army, at Franklin, but failed. When all was 
ready, Thomas dealt Hood a terrific blow at Nashville 
(December 15, 16). Hood's army went reeling southward. 
He resigned. Only nineteen thousand men were left to 
join their old commander, Johnston, in North Carolina. 

494. Sherman turns north (1865). Sherman started 
northward in February. Unfortunately Columbia, South 
Carolina, was burned. Charleston soon fell, for Fort Sumter 
had been battered to pieces (1863). Sherman defeated 
Johnston, whose army was too small to fight much. Finally 
Sherman marched to Goldsboro and rested. A month 
later came the welcome news that Lee had surrendered. 

495. The capital of the Confederacy falls (1865). 
Early in the year Sheridan had cut Lee's lines of connec- 
tion to the westward. He then moved around and 




THE CONFEDERATE CAPITOL 



extended Grant's line farther southward. He finally 
seized Five Points, thus cutting off Lee's supplies. 



JTi 



THE CONFEDERACY WEARING OUT 



321 




Davis was at church. A messenger gave him Lee's 
dispatch. He left silently. The end had come. Men 
were hurry- ^ "i^^is, 1 

ing to and ,. . ^'- 

fro with the 
papers and 
records of 
the Confed- 
eracy. Sol- 
diers and 
citizens were 
busy carry- 
in g away 
some stores 
and destroy- 

inP others lee after the surrender 

In the confusion fires were started. Lee's soldiers left that 
night, and in the morning Grant's came in. Richmond 
had fallen. The Union troops put out the fire. 

496. The surrender at Appomattox (April 9, 1865). 
Lee had intended to take his army by way of Danville 
and unite with Johnston in North Carolina. The Con- 
federates reached Appomattox, but saw the Union troops 
everywhere. Lee's army had been cut down almost half 
(§486), and further figbting was useless. 

Lee and Grant held a meeting and arranged the terms 
of surrender. They could hardly have been more gener- 
ous. The Confederate soldiers were to go to their homes 
and not engage in the war again. They were to take 
their horses with them. "They will need them in the 
spring for plowing and farm work," said Grant. Lee's 
officers and men crowded around him. The men took 
off their hats. Lee simply said: "We have fought 



32 2 THE END OF THE STRUGGLE 

through the war together. I have done my best for you. 
My heart is too full to say more." 

497. Closing out the Confederacy. Grant and his 
officers went back to their men and gave them orders not 
to cheer nor fire cannon over the great event. It was 
hard for the men to obey this command, for however 
much sympathy they might feel for Lee's men, their 
hearts were full of rejoicing over the saving of the 
Union. 

Johnston surrendered to Sherman, April 26. Taylor, 
who commanded in Alabama and Mississippi, gave up 
May 24, and Kirby Smith, who was in charge west of the 
Mississippi, May 26. Davis, who was trying to reach 
Smith, was captured at Irwinville, Georgia. 

Northern men talked about arresting some of the Con- 
federate officers, but Grant refused to permit any man who 
had surrendered to be touched. President Davis was a 
civil officer and ^ was imprisoned, but was bailed out of 
prison by Horace Greeley and other northern men. 

498. The assassination of Lincoln (April 14, 1865). 
Lincoln was happy. He went to Richmond to see the city 
that had given him so many anxious hours. He returned 
and told some friends that he hoped that there would be 
no persecution, no bloodshed after the war was over. 
"No one," he said, "need expect me to take any part in 
hanging or killing those men." Of all northern men, he 
best understood the South. 

Lincoln went to Ford's theater one fateful night. 
Suddenly John Wilkes Booth, a half-crazy actor, shot him. 
He died next morning. Booth escaped, but was caught 
and shot. Persons in the plot aimed to kill Seward and 
others, but their plans failed. Some of the plotters were 
hanged, and others were put in prison for life. 



EFFECTS OF THE STRUruU.E ^ 323 

A wave of sorrow swept over the North. Men had come 
to love Lincohi's great, homely, kindly face. The common 
folk almost worshiped him. Many of them broke down 
and cried when the news came. He died as he lived, 
"with malice toward none, with charity for all." 

499. The soldiers return (1865). It was a happy 
thought that brought as many soldiers as possible to 
Washington for a last review. For two days the veterans 
paraded through the broad streets of the capital. They 
missed the kindly leader and friend whom they all loved. 
But other great men were there to review and to cheer 
them. It was a grand spectacle. The last roll was 
called, the last banner furled, and the war-scarred veteran 
returned home to receive the welcome of waiting loved 
ones. But there were hearts among those waiting that 
could not rejoice; thousands of fathers, sons, and sweet- 
hearts were sleeping in southern soil. 

But there was another scene. For the southern soldiers 
there was no stately parade. They bade old comrades 
a hearty good-by. One by one, or in little bands, they 
slowly journeyed home. Their hearts were sad. They had 
lost. But more than all, their homes were in ruins and their 
loved ones in poverty. But they were glad to be home 
again with father and mother or with wife and children. 

THE IMMEDIATE EFFECTS OF THE STRUGGLE 

500. What the war cost in life. No one can tell the 
full story of the suffering during this conflict. What a 
frightful thing it would be to know what the sick suffered, 
what torture the wounded bore with little to make the 
pain less! At least 500,000 soldiers died. Think of the 
men crippled for life, the number whose lives were made 
shorter by disease or exposure! We do not often think 



3^4 



THE END OF THE STRUGGLE 




of the suffering of the loved ones who stayed at home, 
and of the widows and orphans made by the war. 

Nearly all southern 
men of military age 
went to war. That 
so large a number 
were able to go was 
due to the fact that 
the slave stayed at 
home, raised the 
crops, and cared for 



SANITARY COMMISSION HEADQUARTERS 

the women and old men on the plantations. The draft 
came a bit earlier in the South than in the North (§483). 
In the two armies almost twice as many men died from 
disease as were killed in battle!'^" 

501. Sanitary and Christian commissions. In the 
North kind-hearted people were prompt to go to the relief 
of the soldier. The Sanitary Commission tried to care for 
the men's bodies. It aided the government in many ways. 
It furnished doctors, medicines, bandages, and nurses for 
the sick and wounded. Its hospitals, cars, and tents 
moved as the army moved. The money for this came 
from rich people and from great fairs held in the big cities. 

The Christian Commission looked after the moral and 
religious welfare of the soldiers. Ministers of all denomi- 
nations were enrolled as chaplains. They held religious 
meetings, talked with dying soldiers, and often wrote 
the soldier's last message to loved ones in the old home. 
They also furnished papers, magazines, and books for the 
boys to read. In every way the chaplain tried to keep 
up the moral tone of the army. It was the faith and 
work of the mothers, sisters, and sweethearts that kept 
the armies of the North well cared for and hopeful. 



EFFECTS OF THE STRUGGLE 



325 




A CONFEDERATE HOSPITAL 



502. The Confederacy worn out. The Confederate 
soldier was in a very different situation. Ho often 
marched and fought in 
the last days of the war 
without good shoes, 
without enough cloth- 
ing, and at times without 
much food. It was no 
fault of the noble women 
who sacrificed to get 
him clothing, bandages, 
and medicines. The 
Confederacy was being 
choked to death by the 
blockade. This fate was overtaking them in spite of 
their struggles, prayers, and tears. 

In the spring of 1862 the government was forced to 
draft men ; in 1865 old men and boys were sent to the front. 
The slave raised food for the army and served in many 
places; he was servant to the officers, cook, teamster, 
and laborer on the forts. In the last days, when the 
man-power of the Confederacy was exhausted. General 
Lee favored arming the slaves, but it was too near the end. 

The women of the Confederacy had to get out the 
spinning wheels and hand looms of their grandmothers. 
Homemade clothes were worn, for manufactured goods 
were too scarce or too dear. Newspapers were printed on 
wall paper. Many families, both South and North, were 
compelled to use parched grains instead of coffee. The 
Confederacy felt the pinch of poverty. 

503. What the war cost in loss of property. It is hard 
to measure the loss of property. Millions upon millions 
of dollars were used up in the wearing out of clothes. 



326 THE END OF THE STRUGGLE 

guns, powder, shot and shell, wagons, horses, mules, cars, 
engines, and iron rails. Even wooden rails torn from 
fences around farms were used for fuel in camps and for 
cooking. Houses were destroyed, barns burned, cattle 
and hogs killed, railroads torn up, and cities set on fire 
and partly burned. This w^s war. But it .seems tame 
when compared with the destruction of the World War 
just closed (1918). 

The South suffered 'most, the border slave states next, 
the border free states less, and the other northern states 
but little. 

The most extensive raid into the North was made 
by General John Morgan and his dashing cavalrymen 
(1863).''^ He crossed into Indiana with a few hundred 
men, and dashed into Ohio where he was captured. 
Aside from horses and food taken, he destroyed little. 



^f^'- 
^P'^ 




„ . , III -'^„-.. 










;'5 rffifl 

A SOUTHERN planter's DESERTED HOME 

504. A ruined planter and plantation. No person 
suffered more than the planter. He rode to battle full 
of hope. He returned in despair. The cause of the Con- 
federacy was lost. His field laborers and his house serv- 
ants had been set free. This alone cost the slaveholders 
$2,000,000,000. His plantation was in ruins. He was 



EFFECTS OF THE STRUGGLE 327 

not used to laboring in the field, nor were his wife and 
daughters used to doing work in the household. 

Things had changed. He must start at the bottom. 
If his buildings and tools and fences had escaped destruc- 
tion, they were out of repair. Horses and mules were 
worn out or had been taken by the armies as they swept 
by. His cows and sheep and droves of hogs had been 
used to feed the army. The blockade had lowered 
the price of all he had to sell, and raised the price of all 
he had to buy. His money was worthless. His own 
slave, who had been a soldier and had saved his money, 
might now want to buy a part of the old plantation. 

505. What the war did for the North. AVhen we think 
of the destruction at the South, we can say that the North 
hardly knew what war meant. But in every village and 
city in the North there was the recruiting camp. Mothers, 
wives, daughters, and sweethearts wept as the soldiers 
went marching away with flags flying and drums beating. 

After great battles crowds gathered to hear some man 
with a good voice read the news. Maybe later they read 
the long Hsts of dead and wounded to see if the name of 
some loved one might be there ! Perhaps they did honor 
to a great hero brought home to be buried! There were 
flowers, the long roll, and the solemn sound of fife and 
drum as they carried him to his last resting-place ! There 
appeared wounded and crippled soldiers to remind people 
of war. Heavier taxes and the drafting of men brought 
the conflict nearer home. 

But the North did not feel the tramp of marching 
armies and the destruction of home and growing crops. 
With the exception of Gettysburg no great battles were 
fought on northern soil. But, on the contrary, wages 
began to ri.se because laborers had to be taken for the war. 



32cS 



THE END DF THE STRUGGLE 




SALMON P. CHASE 



The government ealled for great quantities of clothes for 
soldier and sailor, and for guns and ammunition. This 

gave a great "boom" to manu- 
faeturing. To the northern 
farmer came a quick and power- 
ful call for more food. But the 
farmer's sons had gone to war. 
He had to send in a call for 
more machinery. Many new 
machines were invented. The 
farmer had to raise more hogs, 
sheep, cattle, horses, and mules 
for the army. Every line of 
business was prosperous. 

506. A new kind of bank 
(1863). Ever since Jackson 
destroyed the United States bank (§359) banking business 
had been turned over to state banks. These banks issued 
paper money, some bad, some good. 

During the war Secretary Chase (§426) suggested a 
plan by which the paper money of the new banks did not 
change value as much as the old did. According to this 
plan each bank had to own a given amount of United 
States bonds. The banks could then issue paper money 
equal to 90 per cent of the bonds. Thus the government 
pledged itself to stand behind the banks' paper money. 
It made the money as good as the bonds. If the state 
banks wished the nation to get behind their paper 
money, they must become national banks. 

507. Raising money for the war. It was the business 
of Congress to get the money to carry on the war. It did 
this in three ways: (i) By taxes. Congress increased 
old taxes and put on new ones. The tariff had been the 



NEW STATER 329 

common way of getting most of our taxes. The new tax 
on imported goods was called the "war tariff." Another 
new tax was the land tax and a tax on incomes of $800 
or more. Finally, Congress raised money by means of 
an internal revenue. This was mainly a tax on liquors 
(§285). 

(2) By issuing bonds. It soon turned out that the taxes 
were not enough to pay for a war costing $2,000,000 per 
day. By means of bonds the government borrowed 
money from the people. But in the end the people have 
to pay for the bonds by taxes. These bonds were promises 
to pay, bearing interest of from 6 per cent to 9 per cent. 
About $1,000,000,000 came into the treasury in this way. 

(3) By issuing paper money. But taxes and bonds 
were not enough. The government issued notes, called 
"greenbacks" because the back of the notes was often 
green. When the Confederates won victories, this paper 
money fell in value. When Union victories came, it rose 
in value. The same was true of Confederate paper money. 

The cost of the war reached nearly $3,000,000,000. 
To this great sum ought to be added the enormous 
amount paid for pensions. When we add the large sums 
paid by states, cities, towns, and persons, the war cost 
probably reached from six to eight billions. 

STATES ADMITTED THROUGH STRESS OF WAR AND POLIT[f'S 

508. Kansas (1861). Kansas was under the control of 
Spain, France, Spain again (1763), and France again 
when Napoleon's star was rising. He sold it to America 
as a part of Louisiana (1803). Now came the explorers: 
Lewis and Clark (1804), Pike (1806), Long, who followed 
the Santa Fe Trail, and Fremont (1842), who blazed the 
way to Oregon and California. Kansas was made part of 



330 THE END OF THE STRUGGLE 

Indian Territory (1833-54). The moment the Kansas- 
Nebraska Bill was passed (1854) Kansas became a bone 
of contention between the North and South. Much of 
her history has been told (§§432-34). It is claimed that 
Kansas sent a larger percentage of soldiers to the Civil 
War than any other state. One of the most interesting 
industrial experiments is Governor Allen's court for set- 
tling strikes (1920). Kansas, called the Sunflower state, 
is a wonderful agricultural country. 

509. West Virginia (1863). West Virginia, once a 
part of the Old Dominion, was largely settled by Scotch- 
Irish (§110). Much of its history has already been told 
(§455)- The Civil War found the people of the mountains 
strong for the Union, although many persons fought in 
the armies of the Confederacy. Stonewall Jackson, the 
great soldier, was born in this state. Since the war there 
has been a wonderful increase in the production of coal, 
natural gas, and petroleum. In the amount of coal 
mined West Virginia stands second in the Union. For 
several years it has ranked first in natural gas. It pro- 
duced nearly a billion and a half dollars' worth of lumber 
in 1 9 10. As a result it has increased in population more 
than 25 per cent each year since 1890. 

510. Nevada (1864). The state of Nevada was in 
reality born out of conditions created by the Civil War. 
It is known as the "sage-brush" state or in Spanish the 
' ' snow-covered ' ' state. Nevada is sixth in area among the 
states, but is last in population. Between 1775 and 1845 
it had been seen by various white men. Fremont saw it 
in three different years and gave the names to Pyramid 
Lake, Lake Tahoe, and the Humboldt and Truckee rivers. 
It was first settled at Genoa (1849). In this year gold 
was first discovered. Ten years later the wonderful 



NEW STATES 331 

"Conistock Lode" was opened, the richest gold mine 
ever found. The rush of miners now set in, and a terri- 
torial government was organized (1857). Nevada became 
a state after telegraphing her constitution to Washington 
City. Lincoln needed her vote to carry the Thirteenth 
Amendment. 

511. Nebraska ^1867). This region, supposed to have 
been visited by Coronado (§18), was first a Spanish and 
then a French possession. Napoleon sold it to Jefferson 
(1803), and Lewis and Clark camped on its soil (§300). 
Lisa built a trading post just above Council Bluff". Here 
Major Long established a military post (i 8 1 9) . Fremont 
passed through this region on his expedition (1842). 

It was organized into a territory in 1854 {§432). The 
first governors were southern men and quarreled with the 
legislature over slavery. Slavery was aboHshed (1861). 
President Johnson and Congress quarreled over the 
admission of the. state, but Congress was victor and the 
state was admitted. 

William J. Bryan hails from Nebraska. He is a 
Democrat and Prohibitionist. 

512. Colorado (1876). The "Centennial State" was 
first visited, it is claimed, by Coronado and his men (i 541) . 
These were the first to see the homes of the cliff-dwellers. 
Spain and France traded this region back and forth until 
a part fell to the United vStates in the Louisiana Purchase. 
Mexico also claimed a part which she ceded to the United 
States by treaty (1848). The American explorers to visit 
Colorado were Pike, Long, and Fremont. The discovery 
of gold near Boulder (1858) and Idaho Springs (1859) was 
the signal for a rush of people to Colorado. The names 
of Leadville, Cripple Creek, Ouray, and Silverton suggest 
that Colorado leads in the output of precious metals. 



332 THE END OF THE vSTRUGGLE 

Colorado organized as the Territory of Jefferson (1859) 
and ran without the aid of the national government 
until 1 86 1. Political conditions forced the Republicans 
to admit the state in 1876. 

SUGGESTED READINGS 

References for teachers: Wilson, Division and Reunion, 232-238, 
244-252; Morse, Abraham Lincoln ("American Statesmen Series"), 
II, 1-30, 95-133, 13s to end; Grant, Memoirs, II, s^S^, 158-307. 
344-386, 454-512; Paxson, Civil War, 86-90, 101-112, 144-158, 171- 
189, 204-247; Bassett, Short History, chaps, xxvi, xxvii; Hosmer, 
Outcome of the War, chaps, vii-x, xiii, xiv; Hart, Contemporaries, IV, 
chaps, xiii-xvii. 

References for pupils: Coffin, Redeeming the Republic, 67-312, 335- 
446; Coffin, Freedom Triumphant, 79-160, 327-338, 415-444, 454- 
470, 471-486; Mace, Lincoln, 175-186; Hart, Source Book, 329-339: 
Hart, Source Reader, IV, nos. 18-26,62-98; Barstow Civil War, 120- 
220; SoHg, Sailor Boys of ''61. 

Fiction: Collingwood, Blue and Grey; Cooke, Mohun; Goss, Jed. 

PROBLEMS AND PROJECTS 

I. Write a letter home from the Wilderness campaign. 2. You 
are a Union spy. Report to General Grant what you saw in Rich- 
mond just before the surrender. 3. Visit a nSgro in Georgia and 
listen to his reasons for remaining faithful to his " missus." 4. Re- 
port Sherman's march to the sea. 5. You are in Washington at the 
" Grand Review." How do you feel? 



CHAPTER XX 



RECONSTRUCTION OF THE SOUTH 

THE STRUGGLE BETWEEN THE PRESIDEXT AND CONGRESS 

513. Lincoln's and Johnson's plan. Lincoln was gen- 
erous toward the South and had declared that no state 
can go out of the Union (§451). He said the Confederate 
states had tried to secede but had failed. Lincoln thought 
that the easiest w^ay was best. Just as soon, therefore, 
as the Federal armies had overrun a state, he sent forth 
an "Amnesty Proclamation." This, with few excep- 
tions, gave pardon to those taking an oath to support 
and defend the Constitution, the laws of Congress, and 
the Emancipation Proclamation. Three states accepted 
Lincoln's plan and elected 
representatives to Congress. 
Congress refused to admit 
them, and sent Lincoln a 
plan of reconstruction. He 
did not agree to it (July, 
1864). 

Johnson was m harmony 
with Lincoln's plan of recon- 
struction. But there is a 
great difference in men. 
Lincoln, with his wise, firm, 
but gentle way, might have 
won even that Congress to 
some such plan. Not so 
with Johnson. He was stubborn when once he had set 
his mind in a given way. Unfortunately for the nation, 







ANDREW JOHNSON 



ioi 



334 RECONSTRUCTION OF THE SOUTH 

Congress had in it a large number of men made bitter 
by the long struggle, who felt that southern leaders must 
be sternlyl dealt with. Many of these northern leaders 
put no faith in the southerners who had taken the oath 
required by Lincoln. 

514. Beginning to diifer about reconstruction (1865). 
While Congress was out of session, Johnson hurried on 
the work of reconstruction. He appointed governors for 
the southern states. These states made new constitu- 
tions and repealed the acts of secession (§445). They 
declared the slaves free and agreed not to pay one dollar 
of the Confederate debt. 

Congress felt that the negro must be protected. It 
did not know that his old master was, as a rule, his best 
friend. So Congress passed the Freedmen's Bureau Bill 
to protect the negro. The North saw in the laws bearing 
on negro labor, passed by southern states, an attempt to 
turn the colored man back to a sort of slavery. "'- The 
Republicans stood for the Freedmen's Bill, but Democrats 
were against it, and the President vetoed it. 

515. Battle between the President and Congress 
(1866-67). The battle was on between the President and 
Congress. In the other's eyes neither could do any good 
thing. The President scolded Congress, and in like temper 
Congress replied. The President vetoed every bill touching 
reconstruction Congress presented to him. Among these 
was the Civil Rights Bill. This measure made the negro 
a citizen. It gave him the same right as a white man to 
use the United States courts. To make these rights 
safe, they were put in the Fourteenth Amendment. 

In some of the northern states free negroes were per- 
mitted to vote. Lincoln had argued in favor of giving 
"the right to vote to the very intelligent, and especially 



THE PRESIDENT AND CONGRESS 335 

to those who have fought gallantly in the ranks."" But 
Congress went much farther and voted to amend the 
Constitution so as to give the negro manhood suffrage 
(1870). This was the Fifteenth Amendment. 

516. Military rule in the South (1867). Congress now 
struck with a high hand. It divided the seceded states, 
Tennessee excepted, into five districts and placed over 
each a military governor appointed by the President. 
This meant that the governor was to carry out the orders 
of Congress. 

517. Impeachment of the President (1868). FeeUng 
was now running high in all parts of the country. The 
President had denounced Congress, and Congress had 
returned the compliment. The Republicans of the coun- 
try supported Congress, and the Democrats stood by 
Johnson. Congress forbade the President to turn men 
out of office without the consent of the Senate (Art. II, 
§2, •[2). It put General Grant in complete control over 
the army to keep the President from calling the troops 
out of the South. 

Johnson, in his wrath, turned Secretary of War Stanton 
out of office. Congress immediately impeached Johnson 
for "high crimes and misdemeanors" (Art. II, §4). 

The charges against Johnson were tried before the Sen- 
ate acting as a jury. The chief justice sat as presiding 
officer. People came from all parts of the country; they 
were eager to see the great trial and to hear the ablest 
lawyers in the country. For nearly eight weeks the trial 
went on. Finally the Senate voted thirty-five "guilty" 
and nineteen ' ' not guilty. ' ' The charges against Johnson '" 
had failed! (Art. I, §3, ^;6, 7.) 

518. Carpetbaggers and scalawags (1868-70). As a 
result of the situation, the negroes and their leaders had 



33(> RECONSTRUCTIOX f)F THE SOUTH 

obtained a majority of votes in several southern states. 
These leaders had come mainly from the North to make 
their fortunes. They kept about all their property in 
carpetbags (small handbags). Hence they were called 
"carpetbaggers." A few leaders were from, the South; 
they were called "scalawags." These men very easily 
persuaded the negroes to elect them to office. 

519. Negro rule in the South. In the majority of the 
Confederate states negroes now took control. A strange 
l)ody of men to make laws for states so broken by war '. 
A few were intelligent because they had been the trusted 
servants of their masters. Others were ignorant field-hands 
who had spent their days toiling in tobacco, cotton, and 
rice fields. But all were ignorant of public business. 

How strange it all seemed to the old planters ! In these 
same halls they had heard the voices of Calhoun and 
Hayne, or of Toombs and Stephens ! If a white member 
rose to speak, he must address a former slave sitting in 
the speaker's chair. If he offered a resolution, he must 
hear it read to the legislature by a negro clerk. If he 
served on an important committee, its chairman and the 
majority of its members were negroes. 
■ While the legislature was debating a bill to raise money, 
the greatest excitement would occur. The speaker 
pounded his desk to keep order, still many persons were 
on their feet all trying to speak at the same time. The 
noise of loud talking and even of laughing went right on. 
Some members leaned back with their feet on their desks, 
smoking cigars or eating peanuts, while those who were to 
profit by the bill were busy trying to buy votes for it. 

520. What it meant to have negro rule, (i) At the 
very time when they were least able to meet them, the 
states were burdened with debts requiring years for their 



THE PRESIIJENT AND CONGRESS 3.^7 

payment. (2) This new experience gave the negro a 
false notion of what he could do. It became so much 
harder for him to practice those homely virtues of hard 
work, thrift, and self-control. (3) It destroyed much of 
the friendl}' feeling existing between the white man and 
the negro, and produced years of suspicion and friction. 

521. How the South got rid of negro rule. How could 
the South get rid of these corrupt state governments? 




"^-\ 



? t ■f\W' 



I . f'l 



1 ^^^ 



> 



%0m\ 



\\m\mm\\\\\ 



\$MmW\%MiWmif0^h 



HIE KU-KLUX KL.\N MAKES .\ CALL 



Were the negro majorities not backed by the soldiers? 
The white citizens hit upon using the Ku-Klux Klan, a 
social secret society already in existence. The Klan arose 
in Tennessee and spread over the South. Its workings 
were mysterious. Its members went through strange 
performances. They had a ghostlike dress, and took mid- 
night rides on horses covered often with white sheets. 
In the dead of night they suddenly appeared before the 
colored man's cabin. To the negroes they seemed to be 
the spirits of dead Confederates coming back to avenge 



23 



338 RECONSTRUCTIOX OF THE SOUTH 

their unhappy fate. If the bolder negroes and their white 
leaders gave no heed to warnings, they were whipped, 
driven away, and some of them murdered. 

522. Congress tries to protect the negro. We have 
already seen Congress pass the Fifteenth Amendment. 
This provided that no citizen should lose his vote "on 
account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude" 
(Amendment XV). The majority in Congress, against 
great opposition, succeeded in passing two bills, called 
"Force Bills." These bills declared that anyone pre- 
venting the negro from voting, or his vote from being 
counted, should be fined and put in prison (1870-71). 

In 1872 Congress finally passed the Amnesty Act 
(§513), granting the right to vote to many ex-Confederates. 

SUGGESTED READINGS 

References for teachers: Wilson, Division and Reunion, 232-283; 
Lothrop, Seward ("American Statesmen Series"), 320-367; Grant, 
Memoirs, II, 31-38, 158-512; Hart, Contemporaries, IV, 141-155, 
162, 259-263, 303-305, 412-500; Bassett, Short History, 594-626,640- 
644; McMaster, History of the American People, VIII, 192-339, 405- 
521; Schaff, The Sunset of the Confederacy; Haworth, Reconstruction 
and Union, 1-85; Gordon, Reminiscences of the Civil War, 235-465; 
Trumbull, War Memories of a Chaplain. 

References for pupils: Coffin, Redeeming the Republic, 67-453; 
Coffin, Freedom Triumphant, 79-486; Mace, Lincoln, 170-186; Hart, 
Source Book, 299-349; Morgan, A Confederate Girl's Diary; Champlin, 
Young Folks' History of the War for the Union, 402-559; Eggleston, 
Household History, 329-354; Sco\-ille, Brave Deeds of Union Soldiers. 
Fiction: Hale, Mrs. Merriam's Scholars; Page, Red Rock; Tourgee, 
F'u.^rs Errand. 

PROBLEMS AXD PROJECTS 

I. Resolved that Johnson's plan for reconstruction was better 
than the plan of Congress. 2. Describe a day's session of the legis- 
lature of South Carolina when the negroes controlled it. 3, As a 
small boy you used to hear your Uncle John, who was a member of 
the Ku-KlvDC Klan, tell of some of its doings. Describe them in a 
letter to a friend. 



CHAPTER XXI 
NEW PROBLEMS IN POLITICS 

NEW OUESTTOXS ARISE WITH FOREIGX XATIOXS 

523. The United States does Mexico a good turn. 

While the United States was torn by the Civil War, the 
tricky French monarch took advantage of it to invade 
Mexico. 

Mexico, disturbed and weak from quarrels and revolu- 
tions, had refused to pay Spain, England, and France 
what she owed them. Her seaports were occupied by 
these nations. Spain and England withdrew, but French 
troops occupied the city of Mexico. Maximilian of 
Austria was induced to put himself on the throne of 
Mexico. 

Secretary Seward informed Napoleon that French 
soldiers on American soil were a violation of the Monroe 
Doctrine. General Sheridan moved toward the Rio 
Grande with fifty thousand boys in blue. The French 
soldiers Were withdrawn, the Mexicans shot Maximilian, 
and the republic of Mexico was restored. 

524. The purchase of Alaska (1867). America and 
Russia had always been on friendly tenriS. Russia had 
never been able to make much out of Alaska and when 
Secretary Seward offered to buy it, he found Russia 
willing to listen. Seward finally offered $7,200,000 for 
Alaska, Russia accepted, and the treaty was signed. 

A great cry arose in the United States, for most people 
believed it was an icebound region. " Sew^ard's Ice-box," 
the newspapers called it. The treaty was ratified and 

33') 



340 



NEW PROBLEMS IN POLITICS 



577,000 square miles were added to American soil and 
one less nation occupied North America. 

The people of the United States find x\laska a rich 
source of gold and other metals and a vast storehouse of 
timber, fur, and fish. 




1/ I' 

THE GENEVA TRIBUNAL 

525. The Geneva Award (1872). The plan of settHng 
disputes by arbitration is not very old. The United 
States and Great Britain have taken the lead in this 
gentler way than by going to w^ar. 

The first great test came over the "Alabama" case. 
Several warships were built in England for the Con- 
federacy during our Civil War. The United States 
protested against this because England was a neutral 
nation, but the government of Great Britain paid no 
attention to these complaints. 

The "Alabama," the "Shenandoah," and the "Florida" 
played havoc with American trade on the high seas. 
The United States claimed that England should pay for 
the damage done. 

By the treaty of Washington the two nations agreed 
to submit the claims of the United States to arbitration. 
A threat court met in Geneva, Switzerland. The United 



NEW QUESTION'S AND NEW PARTIES ,^41 

States and Great Britain selected a judge apiece and 
three other judges were selected by three neutral nations. 
This court decided that Great Britain should pay the 
United States $15,000,000. Great Britain paid promptly 
and thus was given a great example to the world. 

NEW QUESTIONS CAUSE NEW PARTIES 

526. Old and new parties (1872). The coming of war 
split parties (§§443-44), but when it ended there were but 
two great ones again. All men were either Democrats or 
Republicans. Some men liked to argue war questions. 
Others grew tired of them and of keeping alive the old 
war feelings. '"■' These people called for a kindlier feeling 
toward the South. They were named "Liberal Repub- 
licans," and nominated Horace Greeley, editor of the 
New York Tribune, for president. 

The Democrats "threw up their hats" and nominated 
Greeley, too. But he had been too long opposed to the 
Democrats, so a few of them put up a "real Democrat." 
The Republicans nominated President Grant again. 

Other new questions were coming to the front. The 
Labor Party put up a ticket for the first time. They 
called for paper money and an eight-hour law and were 
opposed to Chinese coming to this country. 

A national Prohibition party was now formed and a 
candidate nominated (1872). 

Grant's victory was overwhelming. Greeley, carried 
only six states."^ 

527. The panic of 1873.'^'^ The war taught men new 
ways of doing business. They saw great armies sweeping 
over the country — the bigger, the more successful ! Why 
cannot business imitate them? Railroads and other 
corporations tried this plan. Out West the railroads 



342 NEW PROBLEMS IN POLITICS 

were built faster than the people came. Great manufac- 
tories made more goods than the people could buy. 
Business was unsettled. 

The rich firm of Jay Cooke and Company failed. It 
could not pay its debts. People in New York grew 
excited. Crowds of yelling people filled the sidewalks of 
Wall Street. They swarmed into the basement, climbed 
over railings, and pushed past policemen into the offices of 
the doomed company. 

The whole country was now alarmed. "Runs" on 
banks took place everywhere. More than ten thousand 
business houses failed between 1873 and 1874. But 
the working man bore the worst of the suffering. 

528. Bad politics works against the Republicans. The 
Democrats were happy. The people were blaming the 
Republicans for the panic and for bad politics. The 
Whisky Ring had cheated the government out of large 
sums of money. The Tweed Ring'" was ruling the city 
of New York. One of President Grant's high officers was 
caught selling contracts in his own department, and was 
forced to resign. Congressmen were proved guilty of 
taking stock in a railroad to which Congress had voted 
large sums. Congress, near the end of its term, voted to 
increase the salaries of its own members from the beginning 
of the term. This was called, in politics, the "salary 
grab," and cost many a congressman his seat. 

Nearly all this corruption was laid at the Republicans' 
door. The result was that the Democrats carried the 
House of Representatives by a large majority for the first 
time since the war. 

529. Who is president, Hayes or Tilden (1876)? For 
the first time in our history, Congress could not tell who 
was elected president. The Democrats had gone into 



XEW QUESTIONS AND NEW PARTIP:S 



343 




i 



7 



RUTHERFORD B. HAYES 



this campaign full of hope. Their candidate was Samuel J. 
Tilden, the great lawyer who had broken up the Tweed 
Ring (§528). 

The Republicans had jjut 
forward General Hayes, three 
times goyernor of Ohio. A 
new party, the "Greenback," 
appeared and called on the 
government to put out more 
paper money so that the poor 
man might earn higher wages 
and pay his debts. 

Unfortunately both Hayes 
and Tilden claimed the elec- 
tion. Congress named an 
' * Electoral Commission ' ' of 
fifteen men to settle the dispute, 
with excitement, and threats of 
Three states, where the ' ' carpetbaggers " were being driven 
out, sent in two sets of electoral votes. This com- 
mission decided these votes in favor of Hayes by a vote of 
eight to seven. The excitement gradually died away.'^^ 

530. The fall of the carpetbaggers (1877). Hayes was 
a man of great moral courage. He immediately removed 
the soldiers from the South. Extreme Republicans were 
angry, and Democrats were happy. The white men of 
the South now took charge, and better governments were 
established. A kindlier feeling betw^een the two sections 
gradually came about, especially since Hayes had called 
an ex-Confederate soldier, David M. Key, to be a 
member of his cabinet. 

531. The election of Garfield and Arthur (1880). 
Some Republicans thought Grant could be nominated 



The country was wild 
'civil war" were heard. 



344 



NEW PROBLEMS IN POLITICS 




JAMES A. GARFIELD 



for a third term since Hayes 
had been so kind to the 
South. But they failed 
in their attempt. General 
Garfield was nominated. 
The Democrats nominated 
General Hancock (§478), 
the ' ' Greenbackers, "General 
Weaver, and the Prohi- 
bitionists, General Neal Dow. 
This was a campaign of the 
generals; much was said 
about their services in the 
war. General Garfield won 
by a large majority. 
But he, too, disappointed some Republican leaders. 

He was a wise and noble man. He refused to appoint 

men to office simply because members of Congress 

wanted them. The people 

were behind him in this 

stand. Unfortunately, a 

half-crazy man shot him as 

he was taking the train to 

his old college town to cele- 
brate the Fourth of July. 

For three months he lay 

between life and death. 

The American people learned 

to hate the ' ' spoils system 

(§356) as never before. 
532. The reform of the 

Civil Service (i883).i^« Both 

Grant and Hayes had 




CHESTER A. ARTHUR 



NEW OUESTIONS AND NEW PARTIES 



345 



demanded a change in the way men were appointed to 
office. Since the death of Garfield, good men everywhere 
joined in the cry for a change in this system. Now 
Senator Pendleton, a Democrat, introduced a bill by 
which men could get office not because they were party 
workers (§356) but because they were best fitted for it. 
This bill provided that men should be examined for the 
offices they wanted. Arthur, who became president when 
Garfield died, signed the bill. Every president since 
then has added to the Civil Service until now more than 
half the offices are filled by examination. Several states 
and cities now use the same system. 

533. Cleveland, the first Democratic president since 
the war (1884). The Democrats went in to win. They 
started by nominating Grover Cleveland, a lawyer. He 
had been mayor of Buffalo, and was elected governor of 
New York by a big majority. 
The Republicans had not read 
the ' ' signs of the times. ' ' They 
nominated James G. Blaine, of 
Maine. He was popular — had 
])een three times speaker of the 
House. He stood for the spoils 
system and denounced the 
South for not permitting the 
negro to vote. A number of 
Republicans, nicknamed 
"Mugwumps," refused to sup- 
port Blaine. The Prohibition- 
ists nominated St. John and put 
up a strong fight. The Green- 
backers put up General Benjamin F. Butler, who appealed 
to the soldier vote. These forces drew from the Republicans. 




C;R0VEK CLEVKl.ANI) 



346 NEW PROBLEMS IX POLITICS 

As a result Cleveland barely carried New York. Its vote 
was in doubt for several days, and men remembered 1876 
(§529). This time itwassettledin favor of the Democrats . 

534. No more disputes over the election of the presi- 
dent. Congress went to work in earnest to prevent 
disputes over the presidency. It passed, and Cleveland 
signed, a bill providing that when neither the president 
nor the vice-president is able to act, the secretary of 
state, followed by other members of the cabinet, shall 
act. Another bill provided that each state shall decide 
which way its vote is to be counted. 

'535. Interstate Commerce Commission (1887). The 
Constitution had given Congress power over commerce 
among the states (Art. I, §8, ^3). For a long time 
people had been grumbling about the railroads. The 
different companies had been uniting their roads, so that 
now a few controlled all the roads in the United States. 
The states could tax them, but could do little in making 
rules for the commerce they carried, for most of it went 
from one state to another. As soon as a carload of wheat 
or meat was started for a station in another state no state 
law dared to touch it (Art. I, §8, ^3). Congress, there- 
fore, passed the famous Interstate Commerce Commission 
Bill (1887). This law made one rule that no road should 
charge more per mile for a short haul than for a long haul. 
Another rule was that all railroads should keep their 
freight rates posted where people could see them. 

The railroads finally tried to get around this law by 
charging the same rates for all hauls and then paying 
back part to one shipper but not to another. This paying 
back a part of the charge was called a "rebate." Con- 
gress made the laws stronger and also compelled the roads 
to use inventions to protect the lives of passengers. 



NEW QUESTIONS AND NEW PARTIES 



347 



^^\'. 



536. Harrison elected over Cleveland (1888). General 
Harrison had borne his part in the Civil War and was 
now a United States senator 

from Indiana. His grandfather 
had been president (§362), and 
the Republicans tried to imitate 
the campaign of 1840. Log 
cabins, raccoons, big balls roll- 
ing on, striking campaign songs, 
and Tippecanoe clubs were 
brought before the people. But 
the great argument of the 
Harrison men was for a high 
protective tariff. The tariff had 
been greatly reduced under 
Cleveland. 

Cleveland lost the support of 
many old soldiers because he had 
vetoed too many pension bills, and of many Democrats 
because he had not turned enough Republicans out of 
office. He was trying to keep down the spoils system. 

The other parties had their candidates. Harrison 
won. The electoral vote was 233 to 168, but the popular 
vote went to Cleveland by more than 100,000. 

537. The surplus and tariff legislation. The war had 
left the nation groaning under a big debt (§507). To 
the surprise of many, more than half had been paid in 
less than twenty years. Most of the money to do this 
had come from the tariff. As the debt grew less people 
began to demand that the "war tariff" be cut down. 
This did not suit the manufacturers. 

In 1887 the war debt due had been paid, and a large 
amount of money was left in the treasury. Everybody 




BENJAMIN HARRISON 



34^ NEW PROBLEMS IX POLITICS 

agreed that this "surplus" should not be left idle, but 
they did not agree as to how it should be used. 

President Cleveland had recommended, and Congress- 
man Mills had introduced, a bill to lessen the surplus by 
cutting down the tariff. The Senate, much to the dis- 
gust of Cleveland, rejected the bill. Hence the tariff 
called out a big fight in the Harrison-Cleveland campaign. 

538. How the people voted on the tariff (1888). The 
McKinley Bill (1890). The RepubHcans favored a high 
tariff. For campaign purposes they charged the Demo- 
crats with aiming at "free trade" because they wanted 
a lower tariff. Most of the Republicans lived in the 
North, while most of the Democrats lived in the South. 

But some changes had taken place since the war. 
The farmers in some parts of the North now began to 
favor a low tariff to reduce the cost of living. In the 
vSouth men running the new iron and cotton mills began 
to favor a high tariff. 

The Republicans took the election to mean that the 
people were opposed to cutting down the tariff. McKinley 
brought in a bill to raise it. This bill also gave the 
president the right to make treaties with other nations, 
agreeing to reduce the tariff. This was called reciprocity. 
The Republicans proposed to reduce the surplus by 
spending it in pensions for old soldiers and their widows, 
for new buildings over the country, and for the new navy 
which had been begun under Arthur. 

539. Greenbacks and politics (1880^89). The govern- 
ment had been driven to put out more than $430,000,000 
in "greenbacks" during the war. They fell very low in 
value compared with gold or silver money. But prices 
paid to the farmer and wages paid to the laborer were 
never so high.'*^" After the panic of 1873 the Greenback 



NEW QUESTIONS AXD XEVV PARTIES 349 

party was formed to force Congress to send out more 
paper money. Congress did not do this, but in 1875 
passed a law to "resume specie payment." By this 
Congress meant that banks should pay out gold and 
silver money if people wanted it. 

540. Populism. Ever since 1873 the discontent of the 
farmers of the West had been increasing. Feeling that 
the big political parties were controlled by the men of 
the East for their own interest, they organized the 
Granger movement of the West and the Greenback 
party (§529). In western legislatures Grangers passed 
laws intended to bring about fairer freight rates and 
lower charges for the use of grain elevators. The Green- 
backers polled three hundred thousand votes in 18*80 
(§531) and then began to drift away from the party, but 
the farmers did not give up. They organized the Farmers' 
Alliance and won a few seats in Congress in 1890. 

A meeting of the Knights of Labor and the Farmers' 
Alliance was held in vSt. Louis in 1891. They agreed to 
work together under the name of the Peoples' or Populist 
party. They nominated General James B. Weaver of 
Iowa for president. In their platfomi they called for 
the free and unlimited coinage of silver so as to put more 
money into circulation, an income tax, government 
ownership of railroads and all monopolies, and a postal 
savings bank. 

541. The election of 1892. The McKinley Tariff Bill 
proved the undoing of the Republicans. The Demo- 
crats vigorously charged Congress with extravagance. 
Merchants raised prices and said the McKinley law 
compelled them to do it. People became dissatisfied with 
the Republican administration. When the campaign 
of 1892 came on, Harrison was renominated by the 



3 50 NEW PROBLEMS IX POLITICS 

Republicans, but Cleveland, the Democratic candidate, 
was triumphantly elected to his second term. Weaver, 
the Populist, got over one million votes. 

542. The panic of 1893. In 1893 a financial panic 
swept the country. This was due to many causes. 
Men had been risking their money in buying the shares 
of newly formed companies, and the railroads had 
been borrowing great sums of money. Americans were 
sending much gold out of the country to pay for imports, 
and little gold was being brought to the treasury'. People 
began to fear that the government paper money was not 
good and always asked to be paid in gold. Business men 
felt uneasy and began to call for the money owed to them. 

A railroad failed and then some trusts; banks and 
factories closed, and thousands of workers found them- 
selves without employment. This panic caused great 
harm, especially among farmers. Wages were cut, and 
many persons, being out of work, lost their homes. Dis- 
content and suffering grew on all sides. But by 1895 
prosperity began returning. 

543. The Wilson Bill. Cleveland wanted a moderate 
reduction of tariff. A bill, known as the Wilson Bill, 
was drawn up. It reduced the tariff and put sugar on 
the free list. The Democratic senators from Louisiana 
opposed free sugar and fought the bill.'"*' At last Con- 
gress agreed to a tariff on sugar, and the bill went to the 
President. He refused to sign it, saying Congress had 
broken faith with the people. The bill became a law with- 
out his signature. It did not produce enough revenue, 
and the government had to go in debt. 

544. Income tax. The wages of the worker and the 
profits of the business man are income. During the 
Civil War, when Congress was desperately trying to find 



NEW QUESTIONS AND NEW PARTIES 351 

money to carry on the war, it laid sC tax on all incomes of 
over $800 a year. This tax was dropped after the war. 
In 1893, as we have seen, the Democrats passed the 
Wilson Tariff Bill. It was expected that this law would 
reduce the revenue by about $50,000,000, and in order 
to make up for this loss, an income tax was provided. 
It called for a tax of 2 per cent on all incomes of over 
$4,000 a year. Its defenders said that the rich largely 
escaped taxation and that this law would be a means of 
reducing the big fortunes. The question of the con- 
stitutionality of the law was raised, and two years later 
the Supreme Court declared the law unconstitutional, 
that is, held that it was no law. 

SUGGESTED READINGS 

References for teachers: Wilson, Division and Reunion, 289-290, 
290-292, 294-297; Beard, Contemporary History, 1-4, 41-46, 50-54, 
90-132, 132-142, 164-198; Fish, American Nation, 420-464; Haworth, 
Reconstruction and Utiion, 43-119; Paxson, New Nation, 49-133, 134- 
256; Hart, Contemporaries, IV, 156-161, 164-167, 168-177. 

References for pupils: Cullom, Fifty Years; Foraker, Busy Life; 
Hoar, A utobiography. 

Fiction: Atherton, Senator North; Ford, Honorable Peter Stirling; 
Payne, Mr. Salt. 

PROBLEMS AND PROJECTS 

I. Suppose you are living in New York in 1S73. Write a letter 
describing scenes on Wall Street when the panic came. 2. Imagine 
yourself a senator from Louisiana in 1 893 . Write to a home newspaper 
explaining your stand on the Wilson Bill. 



• CHAPTER XXII 
ECONOMIC QUESTIONS IN POLITICS 

MONEY AXD PRICES 

545. Falling prices. From 1873 to 1897 we lived in 
a time when the prices of things were constantly going 
down. Many reasons were given for this. Some said 
it was due to men risking their money trying to get rich 
quickly, some to the tariff, and some believed it was due 
to the money situation. Whatever was the truth, the 
farmers felt that they were being badly hurt by the 
falling prices. 

546. Act of 1873. Gold and silver coins had always 
been issued by our government to serve as money, but 
by the time of the Civil War, silver had almost dropped 
from circulation After the war we used mainly green- 
backs. In 1873 Congress simply dropped the silver 
dollar from the list of coins. Nobody paid much atten- 
tion to this at the time, but later, when prices began to 
fall and hard times came, many people began to lay the 
blame on the Act of 1873.'^- 

547. Demand to remonetize silver. Those who held 
this view said the reason prices were falling was that 
the country did not have enough money. They thought 
that prices would rise if more money were put in cir- 
culation. In this way came on the demand that the 
government should begin coining silver dollars. The 
cry for more money came largely from the farmers of 
the West. The silver-mine owners of the West, also, 
were determined that silver should be brought back. 
They had seen the value of the silver in the .silver dollar 

352 



MONEY AND PRICES 353 

fall from one dollar in 1873 to fifty cents in 1895, and 
they demanded that the value of silver be raised. 

548. The government buys silver. The agitation of 
the farmers and silver-miners got results as early as 
1878. Congress passed the Bland-Allison Act ordering 
the government to buy from two million to four million 
dollars worth of silver every month and coin it into 
dollars. Still prices fell. Then in 1890 the Republicans 
tried to please the farmers and silver men by repealing 
the Bland-Allison Act and putting in its place the Sherman 
Silver Purchase Act. This law required the government 
to buy 4,500,000 ounces of silver every month. Still the 
price of silver and general prices went down. 

549. Repeal of the Sherman Act. When the panic of 
1S93 hit the country, President Cleveland decided that 
the government should stop buying silver. It now had 
on hand a store big enough to coin 568,260,982 silver 
dollars. But the people wanted the gold that the silver 
had driven out of circulation. 

The government was supposed to keep a gold supply 
of $100,000,000 to back up all the other forms of money, 
but the suppl}^ fell to $95,000,000 in 1893. So President 
Cleveland called a special session of Congress and forced 
it to repeal the Sherman Act and quit buying silver. 
The farmers and silver men of the West were furious, 
but Cleveland held sternly to what he thought was 
right. '^^ 

550. Discovery of gold in Alaska. Some gold had 
been mined in Alaska ever since 1880, but in 1896 the 
great Klondike field on the Yukon was opened. Ameri- 
cans had to cross land claimed by Canada to reach 
the Klondike. This led to a dispute over the bound- 
avy between Canada and Alaska which was settled by 

•J4 



3 54 



ECONOMIC QUESTIONS IN POLITICS 



arbitration (§593)- The next year gold was discovered 
at Cape Nome. Soon other fields were found. Men 
were already leaving all parts of the country in a rush to 
the land of gold. Hundreds died of hardship and priva- 
tion, but the rest pressed on over the dreary mountain 
trails. Some "struck it rich," but the larger number 
failed to find the fortunes they sought. Alaska has 
proved to be a storehouse of riches. ^^^ From 1880 to 
1 918 the value of the gold alone taken from that country 
amounted to $301,000,000.'^'' 

WORLD'S FAIRS 

551. The Centennial (1878). The Columbian Exposi- 
tion (1893). At Philadelphia was held the Centennial 
Exposition to celebrate the one hundredth anniversary 
of the Declaration of American Independence. 

In 1890 Congress decided that a great world's fair 
should be held in Chicago to celebrate the four hundredth 
anniversary of the discovery of America. The country 




THE M.^NUFACTURES EUII-DIN'G AT THE WORLD'S COLUMBIAM EXPOSITION 

could not get ready by 1892, so the fair was held one year 
later. The fair showed the great progress made in 



THE TARIFF AXD POLITICS 



355 



industry, agriculture, art, and other pursuits in the last 
four hundred years. 






7- ■; -^mfm^Tiw::^^ 






^ .' 



^^ ^ 1 



i '"^tl 










THE liDUCATIOXAL BUILDING AT THE LOUISIANA PURCHASE EXFOSIl ION 

Leading men from all ov^er the world came to hold 
meetings, to discuss important questions like medicine, 
surgery, temperance, music, education, and religion. 
They told about progress in their own countries, and got 
acquainted. They found out that the nations are much 
alike and have about the same problems. Meetings like 
this should often be held. It would help to do away 
with war and would show real progress. ^-*^ 

Among other great expositions held in later years 
were the Pan-American Exposition at Buffalo (1901), 
the Louisiana Purchase Exposition at St. Louis (1904), 
the Lewis and Clark Exposition at Portland, Oregon 
(1905), the Alaska- Yukon-Pacific Exposition at Seattle 
(1909), and the Panama-Pacific Exposition at San Fran- 
cisco (191 5). 

THE TARIFF AXD POLITICS 

552. The campaign of 1896. The Democrats had 
divided on the question of silver. The western wing got 



356 



ECONOMIC OUESTIONS IX POLITICvS 



control of the party in 1896 and nominated William 
Jennings Bryan of Nebraska for president. ^^^ Mr. Bryan 
was a fine speaker who favored the government coining 
all the silver that could be brought to it. He wanted it 
to stamp 37iJ<4 grains of silver as a dollar, although the 
silver was worth only fifty cents in the world's markets. 
He believed that both gold and silver money would be 
used if the government did this. This was the "free 
silver," "bimetallism," or "16 to i" plan. Many 
eastern Democrats refused to follow Mr. Bryan and 
were known as "gold Democrats." The Republicans 
opj^osed the Bryan plan and talked about tariff and 
prosperity. Their candidate, William McKinley of 
Ohio, was elected. 

553. The Dingley Tariff. The Republicans now passed 
the Dingley Tariff Law (1897). This made the tariff some- 
what higher than the Wilson 
Bill did (§543). This new law 
put a large amount of money 
into the treasury and was not 
disturbed for twelve years. 

554. The election of 1900. 
The Democrats raised the cry 
of "imperialism" in the cam- 
paign of 1900. By this they 
meant that extending Ameri- 
can power to Cuba, Porto 
Rico, the Philippines, and 
Hawaii, as the result of the 
war with Spain, was all wrong. 
They said it was a bad thing 
to be conquering and ruling peoples and lands that 
wanted to be independent. The Republicans said that 




WILLIAM J. BRYAN 



ROOSEVELT IX OFFICE 



these lands came to us as a result of the war, that we 
wanted to rule them for their own good and not selfishly, 
and that some other nation 
would surely seize them if we let 
them go. Further, the Repub- 
licans said that these people were 
not ready for self-government 
l:>ut that the United States would 
train them. The Democrats also 
demanded free silver and nomi- 
nated Mr. Bryan. But Presi- 
dent McKinley, with Theodore 
Roosevelt as his vice-president, 
easily defeated him. 

555. The end of "free silver." 
Gold was discovered in South 
Africa in 1886 and in Alaska ten 
years later. These two "countries poured a big supply of 
the yellow metal into the markets of the world in the 
next few ^^ears.^'^'' 

556. The Gold Standard Law. By the Gold Standard 
Act of 1900 the gold dollar, containing 23.22 grains of 
pure gold, was made the legal money standard of the 
United wStates. All other kinds of money, and there 
are nine of them, can be directly or indirectly changed 
for gold. Gold is the prop underneath them all. This 
was a victory for the gold standard men and showed 
there was no chance for silver as money. 




WILLIAM MCKINLEY 



ROOSEVELT IX OFFICE 



557. Roosevelt's two terms (1901-9). At the begin- 
ning of his second term President McKinley was killed 
by an assassin. His place was taken by Theodore 



35< 



ECONOMIC QUESTIONS IX POLITICS 



Roosevelt of New York, the vice-president. Roosevelt was 
already well known. i** He had been in politics for years 
and had earned a reputation for courage and honesty. 
As head of the Civil Service Commission under Harrison 
he did not fear to oppose the big politicians when they 
tried to violate the Civil Service Law (§532). x\fterward 
he became police commissioner of New York City, assist- 
ant secretary of the navy, governor of New York, and 
then vice-president. Few men understood Americans as 
Theodore Roosevelt did, and only Washington, Jackson, 
and Lincoln have enjoyed such popularity. His hatred 
of fraud, his unquestioned courage, and his pure patriot- 
ism give him a high place among great Americans. 

Roosevelt was never much 
', . interested in the tariff, but he 

was quick to catch the meaning 
of the trusts or "big business. " 
He believed that they should 
be put under government 
control, not because they were 
big, but because in many cases 
big companies became monopo- 
lies and oppressed the people 
(§527). He wanted to make 
big business "be good." 

558. Roosevelt the peace- 
maker. In 1903 and 1904 
Russia and Japan were at war 
with each other over territory 
in China. Russia had seized 
Manchuria, and Japan held 
Korea, but they got to quarreling, and a bloody war 
followed.'-''^ President Roosevelt, after the Japanese had 




THEODORE ROOSEVELT 



roosevp:lt ix office 359 

defeated Russia in several battles, decided that the time 
for peace had come. He urged both sides to send 
representatives to the United States where they could 
hold a conference and make peace. They agreed, 
and the meetings were held at Portsmouth, New Hamp- 
shire. President Roosevelt helped all he could, and 
finally a treaty was signed. This was a great triumph 
for the President; it showed he was a true friend of 
peace. ^^^ 

559. Roosevelt's reelection (1904). The Democrats 
nominated Alton B. Parker of New York. Roosevelt 
won a smashing victory, carrying every state in the 
North and West, and Missouri in the South. During 
his second term he continued his fight against the trusts 
and insisted that Congress should strengthen its control 
over the railroads. His hard-hitting attacks on the trusts, 
the railroads, and the political bosses won for him many 
bitter enemies in his own party and out of it. But he was 
a splendid fighter and was always on the side of the 
people. He was a tremendous power for reform. 

560. The fleet goes around the world. Down to 1907 
the American fleet had stayed on the Atlantic side of the 
continent. On account of the growth of our interests in 
the Pacific (§§588-592) Roosevelt declared that "the 
Pacific was as much our home waters as the Atlantic." 
He wished Americans, and other peoples as well, to 
know that "our fleet could and would pass at will from 
one to the other of the two great oceans. So in the 
summer of 1007 he ordered the fleet to be prepared for 
the voyage. 

There were sixteen great battleships and a fleet of 
torpedo boats. They set out in November, 1907, from 
Hampton Roads. Amid the cheers of boats full of 



3fio ECONOMIC QUESTIONS IN POLITICS 

people, the waving of flags, and the firing of cannon the 
fleet signaled good-bye. 

Some naval experts said that the ships would break 
down. But instead they safely passed the Straits of 
Magellan and soon arrived at San Francisco. Then 
leaving the little torpedo boats behind, they struck out 
on the broad Pacific '^'^ for New Zealand and Australia, the 
Philippines, China, Japan, and home by way of the 
Mediterranean. 

On Washington's birthday, February 22, 1909, sixteen 
months after leaving Hampton Roads, the fleet came 
steaming into the same harbor, and Roosevelt was there 
to greet it. The fleet had proved that it could go around 
the world. Everywhere it had been received in a friendly 
fashion and the men had been cheered and feasted. 
Everywhere the fine discipline of the sailors and the 
splendid quality of the ships had left greater respect for 
the United States. Roosevelt afterward said that send- 
ing the fleet around the world was the greatest service he 
performed for peace between the nations. 

CONSERVATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES 

561. A rich country. America is the richest country 
in the world. This is due to its rich natural resources 
and to its climate. In this climate people can work 
hard, and the natural resources are here to reward their 
effort. It is estimated that in 1918 the total national 
wealth of the United States amounted to $228,000,000,000. 
This does not mean that this is the actual amount of money 
in the country, but rather that it is the value of such things 
as farms, factories, railroads, mines, forests, and oil wells. 

562. What natural resources are. Natural resources 
are land, forests, fisheries, minerals such as coal, oil, and 




A REFORESTED AREA OF NORWAY SPRUCE AND WHITE PINE, PLANTED 
TWENTY-FOUR YEARS AGO 



CONSERVATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES 361 

precious metals, and water power. The supply seemed 
unlimited, and for a long time nobody thought of using 
these resources carefully so they would not be used up. 
But President Roosevelt saw we were making a great 
mistake. He knew that Europeans thought us the most 
wasteful i^eople in the world. '•'■'' He knew lumbermen 
went through the forests carelessly cutting down trees 
and not caring if the young trees were destroyed. He 
knew that we were using twice as much timber as we were 
growing and that there was great destruction by forest 
fires. He could see the end of the forests only a few years 
away. 

563. Saving the lands for the people. Roosevelt felt, 
too, that it was wrong to let the coal, oil, and water power 
sites of our public lands pass into the hands of corpora- 
tions; they would use them up quickly for profit. He 
believed that these lands should be saved for the people. 
Acting under an old law, he withdrew from settlement 
about 150,000,000 acres and created a large number of 
forest reserves. He thus saved the forests from destruc- 
tion. These forest reserves are mostly in the West. 
Some people objected to Roosevelt's policy, saying it 
kept people out of those regions, but he held to his plan. 

President Taft also was a friend of conservation, and 
Congress, by his advice, passed nine conservation laws 
(1910). Two of these laws provided for leasing coal, 
phosphate, oil, and natural gas lands. The idea was not 
to prevent the use of these resources, but by keeping them 
under government control to make sure there was no 
waste. 

564. The Forestry Service. The Forestry Service, a 
branch of the Department of Agriculture, looks after our 
forests. Agents of the service have built roads through 



36- 



ECONOMIC QUESTIONS IN POLITICS 



the forests and have turned some of the forests into 
national parks Rangers are ah^avs on the \\atch to 




^JfetrC 






— -Tf .^^^ 




THE ROOSEVELT DAM ACROSS SALT RIVER 



check forest fires. These fires destroy much timber each 
year. In 1919, 1,400,000 acres of forest land were burned 
over in Montana and Idaho alone.'-" 

565. Reclaiming waste lands. Fifty years ago settlers in 
the West wrote their friends "back home" of the country 
through which they had passed. They told of the rolling 
plains without a tree as far as the eye could see. They 
described the Indians and the immense herds of buffalo 
that sometimes blocked the trains as they crossed the 
tracks. They spoke of land near the mountains covered 
with sagebrush and cactus. They told how the dusty 
wagon-trains had to travel from one water-hole to another 
and how the scarcity of water was the curse of the land. 

Later settlers, seeing what the Mormons in Utah had 
done by irrigating the land, began to build little irrigat- 
ing systems leading from the rivers out on to the land. 



THE FROGRESSIV^E AIUVEiMEXT 



363 



Wherever they brought the hfe-giving water to the land, 
Nature repaid them with bountiful harvests. Then they 
set about irrigating the dry lands in earnest. Dams were 
built, pumping stations set up, and ditches dug. Private 
companies, counties, states, and at last the nation took 
up the work. Today all along the Rockies, from north to 
south, prosperous and happy farmers are growing grain 
and tending orchards of apples and oranges where a few 
years ago sagebrush and the wolf ruled undisturbed. '■'■^ 

566. Election of 1908. For a third time the Democrats 
nominated Bryan. Roosevelt by his enormous influence 
easily secured the nomination of his friend William H. 
Taft. The Socialists nominated Eugene V. Debs. 
Roosevelt's backing gave Taft 
a great advantage. He was 
elected by a large majority. ^Vi-^^^^^^m, 

THE PROGRESSIVE MOVEMENT 

567. Tariff revision (1909- 
13). The Republican plat- 
form of 1908 favored revising 
the tariff. Congress took up 
this matter at once, and the 
result was the Payne-Aldrich 
Act. People had expected 
the tariff rates to be lowered, 
but when the bill was pub- 
lished they saw that this 
had not been done. Taft 
signed the bill (§57o).i'''« 

568. Postal savings banks. 
Postal savings banks hav^e been in use in Europe for a 
long time. But not until igio were they established in 




WILLIAM HOWARD TAKT 



3^4 



ECONOMIC OUESTIOXS IX POLITICS 



this country. Friends of the plan argued that it would 
promote thrift, as many people would save money if they 




THE PARCEL POST SECTION OF A tARGE CITY POST OFFICE 

could deposit it with the government and get interest for 
it. This proved to be true. By 191 8 the postal savings 
deposits exceeded $167,000,000. The government pays 
2 per cent interest on deposits. Anyone can open an 
account at his post office by depositing one dollar. 

569. Parcel post. Later the post office took up another 
task, the carrying of packages too large to go through the 
mail. To be sure, several express companies were 
making a business of handling such packages, but the 
people believed they charged too much. The express 
comjoanies opposed the bill introduced in Congress pro- 
viding for the post office to take up this work. They 
said they would be ruined if the bill was passed. But 
Congress passed the law (191 2), and people now wonder 
how they ever got along without the parcel post. 



THE PR(1GRESSIVE MOVEMEXT 365 

570. The "progressive movement." During the 
twenty years before the eleelion of President Taft there 
had been a steadily growing and widespread feeling 
among the people against "big business." They felt that 
the "special interests " had too much to say about the way 
the government was run. This feeling was very strong 
in the West, but it was shared by men of all parties in 
all parts of the country. They said that in the nominating 
conventions, in the state legislatures, and even in the halls 
of Congress, the tracks of the "special interests" could 
be seen. On the other hand, measures for the common 
good could hardly get a hearing. Out of this arose a 
demand for direct legislation — the initiative, referendum, 
and recall — and for more thorough regulation of "big 
business." 

President Roosevelt, the people's champion in the fight 
with the " interests," had backed Mr. Taft when Taft ran 
for the presidency, and on the strength of this backing Taft 
was elected.'*' Therefore when Taft signed the Payne- 
Aldrich Bill, opposed by the "progressive" members of 
Congress, they fell out with the President. They 
said he was not true to Roosevelt's ideas. Senator 
LaFollette became the leader of the "progressives." He 
tried to secure the Republican nomination for the presi- 
dency. The eastern "progressives," regarding him as 
too extreme in his political views, threw their strength 
to Roosevelt, and LaFollette fell into the background. 

571. The RepubHcan convention (1912). To the nomi- 
nating convention at Chicago many states sent two sets 
of men, one to vote for Taft, the other for Roosevelt. 
The convention machinery was in the hands of Taft's 
friends, the "regulars," who seated the Taft men and 
nominated Taft.'''^ The Roosevelt men withdrew from 



366 ECONf)MI(' QUESTIONS IN ]n)LITICS 

the convention and founded a new party, the Progressive 
party. In August they met at Chicago and nominated 
Roosevelt for president. In their platform they declared 
for the initiative and referendum, woman suffrage, and 
popular election of United States senators. 

572. The Democratic convention. At Baltimore, where 
the Democratic convention met, there was the same sort 
of fight. William Jennings Bryan was the leader of the 
progressive element and was powerful enough to break 
down the "regulars" and bring about the nomination of 
Woodrow Wilson, governor of New Jersey. ^^^ The plat- 
form was progressive. The result of the election was 
never in doubt. Taft carried only two states, Roosevelt 
five, and WiLson all the others. 

SUGGESTED READINGS 

References for, teachers: Bassett, Short History, 697-699, 729, 
745) 755) 760-762; Haworth, Reconstruction and Union, chap, ix; Ogg, 
National Progress, chaps, i, ii, vi, xi; Latane, America as a World Power, 
chaps, vii, xiii; Bogart, Economic History, 448, 449; Taussig, Tariff 
History of the United States; Tarbell, The Tariff in Our Times; VanHise, 
The Conservation of Natural Resources in the United States; Croly, 
The New Nationalism; Hart, Contemporaries, IV, chap, xxviii. 

References for pupils: Hagedorn, Boy^s Life of Roosevelt; Roose- 
velt, Theodore Roosevelt's Letters to His Children; OUn, American Irri- 
gation Farming; Dorrance, llie Story of the Forest; Price, The Land 
We Live In; James, Readings in American History, lo]. 

Fiction: Darling, Baldy of Nome; Hough, The Young Alaska)is. 

PROBLEMS .\XD PROJECTS 

I. You are living on a Kansas wheat farm in the nineties. Write 
a letter to your cousin in Ohio telling him why you want more silver 
money made. 2. Topic, "A day at the Columbian Exposition." 
3. You are living in a town in western Montana. Topic, "Why I 
am against forest reserves." 4. Imagine yourself a Roosevelt dele- 
gate to the national Republican convention in 191 2. Write an 
account of your experiences to your local newspaper. 



CHAPTER XXIII 



OUR NEW POSITION IN THE WORLD 

THE WAR WITH SPAIN 

573. Cuba rebels. Of all vSpain's vast empire in the 
New World only Cuba and Porto Rico remained under 
Spanish rule in 1850. Spanish government in these 
colonies was so corrupt, cruel, and unfair that discontent 
was always at the boiling point. In 1868 a rebellion broke 
out in Cviba which continued for ten years. It was a 



iVSii/ivt-) /r's^T A T K 



MJliarWstoTi 



■^^ Tarapa^' 









A T A . / -V T I C 
C /l a X 



X«<i^-«^ ^ >° ^ RICO "^i^. •* 



"^^H ■; rt::SRITISH 

6»»^ ,^<<^.^.-^>^ MERICA 



^o^. 

.^-> 



%»'■' U' 




PORTO RICO AND CUBA 



failure. A second revolt blazed up in 1895. Both sides 
showed the greatest cruelty. Gomez, the Cuban leader, 

367 



36S OUR NEW POSITION IX THE WORLD 



i 



organized bands of Cubans who caught small groups of 
vSpanish soldiers and slaughtered them without mercy. 

Weyler, the 
Spanish general, 
burned villages 
^--.,,^^-~- v.,n-^x and gathered 

^ .^'^^2.^'^^^''^ \ " - ^he women and 
<'^y^-^dK'^-^^ " ^ ^ children into a 

..--^4i.^V-^-il\ik^^.S^^^^^ ^~" few great camps 

'> / F\ >^-,l^i. ^ ^ not feed the 
:li^*5^/v^\5s. '^i^ {^ ^^ rebels. These 




camps were 
4Il,^ '^ places of misery 




HOW THE CUBANS FOUGHT 



and of death, 
starvation carrying off these people by thousands. 

574. America's interest in the struggle. Americans 
naturally felt indignant at this awful state of affairs at 
their front door. The Cubans seemed to them an 
oppressed people struggling bravely for the freedom which 
rightly belonged to them. Then, too, Americans owning 
plantations and sugar mills in the island saw their property 
destroyed and their business ruined. Congress decided 
to recognize the Cubans as belligerents, but Cleveland 
clung to his policy of neutrality. The new president, 
William McKinley, was a lover of peace. He opposed 
war w4th Spain, which many people were now demanding. 
Instead, he sent a strong protest to Spain about the 
bad conditions in Cuba.""*^ 

575. The destruction of the "Maine." The Spanish 
party in Cuba was so bitter against Americans that our 
government sent the battleship "Maine" to Havana to 
protect the Americans living there. On the night of 



WAR WITH SPAIN 369 

February 15, 189S, a terrific explosion tore a great hole 
in the side of the "Maine." She sank, carrying down 
260 men. Americans were stunned at the news. If 
Spaniards had done this deed, and Americans believed 
they had, it meant war.-"' The Spanish government 
declared it knew nothing of the matter, but Americans 
would not listen; the war spirit swept the land.-"- 

576. The declaration of war. Further correspondence 
with Spain bringing only promises of reform in Cuba, 
President McKinley, April 11, 1898, sent a war message 
to Congress. Eight days later Congress passed resolu- 
tions demanding independence for Cuba. The president 
was given power to use the army and navy in bringing 
this about. Congress also solemnly declared that the 
United States would withdraw from Cuba as soon as a 
firm government was established. 

577. Dewey at Manila. The war oegan with a great 
naval victory. Commodore George Dewey with his fleet 
was at Hongkong, China. He at once started for Manila 
to capture or destroy the Spanish fleet known to be there. 



^z 





f^'^V-^T .^ m^..,,J&:l''^ 



THE BATTLE OF MANILA BAY 

On the morning of May i, Dewey's six ships attacked the 
Spanish fleet, destro^^ed it, and silenced the batteries on 



370 



OUR NEW POSITION IN THE WORLD 



shore. -"^ It was a splendid victory. Three months later 
an American army under General Merritt arrived from 
the United States and seized the city of Manila. We now 
held the Philippines. 

578. The war in Cuba. While Dewey and Merritt were 
winning the Philippines, the war in Cuba was starting. 
An army was quickly built up. A regiment of volunteer 
cavalry made up of cowboys, miners, lumbermen, 
Indians, and college athletes attracted special attention. 
It was called the "Rough Riders." Leonard Wood was 
its colonel, -°^ and Theodore Roosevelt its lieutenant- 
colonel. About the middle of June an army of 16,500 

men started for 
Cuba. Two 
battles were 
won. El Caney 
^.-,jvrt and San Juan. 
"' '' 'wu\ '^■'^^ Americans 
]!^t ^^^'^ prepared 
to storm San- 
\\^ tiago. But the 




•'■r^/fy^ Spanish gen- 
eral saw there 
was no hope 
of holding out. 
On July 17 he 
surren dered 
the city and 
with it, most of 

CHARGE OF THE ROUGH RIDERS AT S.-VN JUAN eaStCm Cuba. 

Four days later General Miles invaded Porto Rico. The 
island was rapidly passing into his hands when news of 
peace proposals came on August 12. 



WAR WITH SPAIN 37 T 

579. Work of the navy. When the war began the 
Spanish admiral, Cervera, sailed from the Cape Verde 
Islands for Cuba. Our ships were on the watch for him, 




THE BATTLE OF SANTIAGO 



but he slipped past them into the harbor of Santiago. 
The American fleet tried to bottle him up by sinking an 
old ship, the "Merrimac, " across the mouth of the harbor. 
The attempt failed, and the six men who made it and 
their commander, Lieutenant Hobson, were captured by 
the Spaniards. 

On the morrjing of July 3 the Spanish fleet darted out 
of the harbor. The admiral's flagship led. At once the 
Americans opened fire, and a running fight took place 
along the, coast of Cuba. One after another, the Spanish 
vessels went down or ran ashore. In four hours the 
Spanish fleet was completely destroyed and Admiral 
Cervera and 1,700 men were prisoners.-"' Spain was 
wiped from the sea. 

580. The peace treaty. Representatives of the United 
States and Spain met at Paris and made a treaty. Under 
this treaty it was agreed: (i) that Cuba should be free; 



372 



OUR NEW POSITION IN THE WORLD 




(2) that Porto Rico should be ceded to the United States; 

(3) that the PhiHppines and the island of Guam should 

go to the United 
States ; (4) that the 
United States 
should pay Spain 
$20,000,000. 

581. Free Cuba. 
When Congress at 
the beginning of 
the war, declared 
that the United 
States would with- 
draw from ®uba as 
soon as a firm gov- 
ernment was estab- 
lished, the people 
of Europe only 
laughed. They did 
not believe we 
would do it. But 
see what happened. 
W^hen the Span- 
ish army left the 
country, American 
engineers went into the island and wiped out yellow fever 
by cleaning up all places where the mosquito breeds. 
Our government started modern schools and helped the 
Cubans to found their own republic. Then our soldiers 
came home, and Cuba was ready to go ahead as a free 
country (1902). 

Congress had adopted the Piatt Amendment. Under it 
(i) the United States will see that no foreign power ever 



X. BOKXE(£^ 



THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 



THE PANAMA CANAL 373 

gets control of the island. (2) It will see that order, 
independence, and republican government are maintained 
on it. (3) It will supervise Cuban finances. (4) Cuba 
will continue sanitary reforms. (5) The United States is 
to have the Isle of Pines and certain land in Cuba for 
a naval station. 

In 1906 the Cubans seemed about to start a civil war. 
To maintain order the United States took charge of the 
country, administered its affairs for three years, then 
withdrew. Since that time conditions in the island have 
been orderly. Uncle Sam really has been a big brother 
to Cuba. 

582. Results of the war. Several important results 
grew out of the w^ar with Spain: (i) It showed that all 
sections of the United States would stand together against 
a foreign foe. We are a united nation in spite of the 
memories of the Civil War. (2) It forced the United 
States to become a world power. Our time of isolation 
was gone. (3) It raised the issue of colonial power. 
Were we to start a policy of taking and holding foreign 
territor}^ against the will of the people? (4) It led to a 
bigger army and navy. (5) It opened the way to an 
expansion of world trade. 

THE PANAMA CANAL 

583. Need for a canal. We have seen how difficult it 
was for people from the East to get to California when 
gold was discovered (§423). This caused a demand for a 
railroad and a canal across the Isthmus. A company 
was organized, and the Panama railroad was built. -""^ 
But as the west coast gained in population and wealth, 
American farmers and manufacturers wanted to ship 
goods across the country. They objected to the high 



•374 OUR NEW POSITION IN THE WORLD 

freight charges of the railroads. They thought a canal 
across the Isthmus would help thern, for it is a well- 
known fact that bulky goods can be shipped much more 
cheaply by water than by rail. 

584. The French effort. In 1869 a French engineer, 
De Lesseps, completed the Suez Canal. It was a great 
success, and De Lesseps began to plan a canal across 
the Isthmus of Panama. He organized a company and 
started to work. But yellow fever, as well as other dis- 
eases, killed the workmen by thousands. Bad manage- 
ment also helped ruin the undertaking. After spending 
about $300,000,000 he gave up the task (1889). 

585. Uncle Sam takes hold. During the war with 
Spain our largest battleship, the "Oregon," had to make 
a trip all the way round South America from San Fran- 
cisco to Cuba in order to reach the scene of fighting. This 
trip took sixty-six days and more than ever Americans 
wished for a canal through the Isthmus. After the war 
our interests in the Pacific made it clear that something 







THE BATTLESHIP " OREGON " 



must be done. But England stood in the way. Because 
of her world commerce she wanted a voice in the canal 



THE PANAMA CAXAL 



question, so in lyoi a treaty, called the Hay-Pauncefote 
Treaty, was signed. It agreed that the United States 




CARIBBEAN SEA 






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PACIFIC OCR A N 



THE REPUBLIC OF PANAMA 



should build the canal and that it should be open to the 
ships of all nations on equal terms. 

Congress bought out the French company for 
$40,000,000 and tried to buy a strip of land across 
the Isthmus of Panama from Colombia. The govern- 
ment of Colombia was offered $10,000,000 in cash and 
$250,000 annually, but it wanted more. The matter 
dragged. Then word came that the people of Panama 
had rebelled against Colombia and had established an 
independent country — the Republic of Panama. 

President Roosevelt immediately recognized the new 
republic-"'' and in a few days made a treaty with it by 
which we got a strip of land ten miles wide across the 
Isthmus. The amount paid was the same as we had 
offered Colombia. 

586. Building the canal. The first thing was to clean 
up this region so our men would not get ^^ellow fever 



376 



OUR NEW POSITION IN THE WORLD 



(§584). Since this disease is carried by the mosquito, it 
was necessary to screen the houses ahd to drain the water 
from holes and swamps where the mosquito breeds. 
The towns were made clean and kept clean. The disease 
was conquered. Then the work went ahead, and the first 
ship passed through the canal in 1914. 

587. The canal. The canal is 49 miles long and from 
300 to 1,000 feet wide. There are 12 locks. It cost 
$375,000,000 to build it, but it is already earning more 
than the cost of its upkeep. In 1919, 2,107 ships passed 
through the canal. 

It is easily seen that the Panama canal is of great 
importance in the trade between our east and' west 
coasts and with the coast cities of South America.-"'* 




»»" IJCIV^ Am Kalohicj. r^*i,i:, 

Lanai l\J)V>->^afiu7^MAUI I. 

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HAWAII 



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Scale 



97 Statute Miles to one inch 

Kailways 

Steamship lines _ 
Lava flows — _- t^^^... 



HAWAII I. 




Kapoho 



THE HAWAIIAN ISLANDS 



AMERICA IN THE FAR EAST 

588. The Hawaiian Islands. Americans early settled 
in Hawaii.-"^ They were missionaries, business men. 



AMERICA IX THE FAR EAST 377 

traders, and cattle men. They developed great sugar 
plantations. In 1893 some Americans and natives 
started a revolution against the native queen. The 
revolutionists got the upper hand and asked the United 
vStates to annex the islands. President Harrison was 
willing, but the Senate failed to approve the act. Later 
the offer was renewed, but President Cleveland, believing 
the queen had been badly treated and that it would be 
wrong to take the islands, opposed the offer. But in 
1898, after the Spanish war, they were annexed. The 
islands were on the highway to the Philippines. 

589. Samoa. Tutuila. Far out in the Pacific, two- 
thirds of the way from San Francisco to Australia, lie the 
Samoan Islands. Although not very valuable, they are 
useful as coaling stations. As early as 1878 we secured 
a coaling station there and promised to protect the islands" 
from other powers. Later Germany and Great Britain 
also secured interests in the islands. 

In 1886 a civil war between native chiefs and the 
high-handed actions of the German consul almost brought 
on war between the powers. Great Britain, Germany, 
and the United States all had warships there, but a terrible 
storm destroyed the German and American ships and all 
the British except one. This gave time for sober thought. 
It was finally agreed (1900) that the United States should 
take over the island of Tutuila with Pago-Pago, its harbor, 
and Germany the rest of the islands, which now belong to 
New Zealand. Great Britain withdrew altogether. 

590. China (1900). The Chinese along the coast felt 
their country was being torn to pieces by the great powers 
of Europe and by Japan. These nations were seizing 
Chinese territory and interfering in Chinese affairs. The 
Chinese government was too weak to resist. Then the 



378 



OUR NEW POSITION IX THE WORLD 



' ' Boxers, ' ' a band of rebels opposed to foreigners, killed the 
German ambassador and other foreigners in Pekin.^i" 
The United States joined the other powers in sending 
troops to rescue the besieged people. The powers then 
demanded pay for their trouble. There was great danger 
that China would be divided among the powers and 
cease to exist as a nation. Secretary Hay opposed this. 
He wanted to keep China a country where all nations 
could trade freely. He called this the ' ' open-door ' ' policy. 
The powers agreed to this plan, and China was saved. 

The United States received $24,000,000 from China 
when a settlement of the "boxer" trouble was made. 
This was $13,000,000 more than our losses, so we gave 
this sum back to her as an act of friendship. China 
decided to use this money in sending her young men and 
women to the colleges and universities of the United 
States. By the ' ' open-door ' ' policy we won the position of 

China's best friend. 
591. The question 
of the Philippines. 
The war with Spain 
gave us the Philip- 
pines. The Filipinos 
wanted independ- 
ence, but they were 
not ready for it. 
Only a few were 
educated. Some, 
indeed, were wild, 
living in little bands 
or warring tribes under their own leaders. One of their 
leaders, Aguinaldo, resisted the Americans for about 
two years. When he was captured, the trouble ended. 




A PHILIPPINE SCHOOL 



INTERNATIONAL ARBn'RATION 379 

592. Government of the Philippines. America slowly 
worked out a plan of government. First, it was made 
clear that the people must settle down and be orderly. 
The American army saw to that. Then a system of free 
schools was established. Many hundreds of good Ameri- 
can teachers went to the islands to educate the natives.-" 
Good roads and bridges have been built, and better 
methods of agriculture are being taught. Sanitation is 
looked after, and libraries have been founded. 

The president appoints a governor, and the natives 
elect the legislature. This does not suit some of the 
natives, as they wish entire independence. In 191 6 
Congress declared that the country would be given its 
independence just as soon as the people show that they 
are ready for it. The Filipinos and the Porto Ricans are 
being trained bv the United States for self-government. 



r^^'T*^^. 



-4 






1. ) r^f' V* ^'^ 




THE ALASKA PURCHASE OF I867 

INTER NATIONAL ARBITRATION 

593. The seal fisheries arbitration (1893). When we 
bought Alaska in 1867 we took over her claim to the 



3^0 



OUR NEW POSITION IN THE WORLD 



seal fisheries in Bering vSea. Great Britain opposed this 
claim, saying we could not control the fishing for more 














ALEXAX 



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THE DISPUTED ALAVKAN BOUNDARY 



than three miles from shore. Our navy arrested the 
masters and crews of several British vessels hunting seals 
in this region, and the dispute grew bitter. Then the 



INTERN'ATIOXAL ARBITRATIOX 381 

two nations decided to arbitrate the matter. The deci- 
sion required the United vStates to pay damages and 
denied her claim to control of the sea. We accepted 
the decision.-'' 

594. The Alaskan boundary arbitration (1896). vSoon 
another c[uestion arose. The boundary between Alaska 
and Canada was not clearly defined, and for some years 
nobody cared. But with the discovery of gold in the 
Yukon Valley (1896) disputes arose. In this matter both 
sides wanted arbitration. Since Great Britain had charge 
of Canada's foreign relations, our dealings were with her. 
But there were two Canadians on the arbitration com- 
mission. The Americans won the decision, and Canada 
accepted the new line (see map). 

595. The Venezuela arbitration (1899). Venezuela 
and Great Britain disputed about the boundar}' between 
Venezuela and British Guiana. This dispute began in 
1 84 1 when a line was run that gave Guiana 50,000 square 
miles of land claimed by Venezuela. The matter came 
up several times, but no settlement was reached. Vene- 
zuela appealed to the United States for justice in 1895. 
President Cleveland demanded the question be submitted 
to arbitration. He said the Monroe Doctrine meant we 
would not allow a state like Venezuela to be oppressed by 
a European power. Lord Salisbury, prime minister of 
England, opposed arbitration and denied that the Monroe 
Doctrine covered the case. 

President Cleveland then sent a message to Congress 
which plainly stated that the United States would resist 
any attempt by Great Britain to seize Venezuelan land. 
He suggested the appointment of a commission to study 
the question and tell us where the line should be. Con- 
gress immediately provided for the commission. 



3^2 OUR NEW POSITIOX IX THE WORLD 

Englishmen could hardly believe the news when they 
heard there was danger of war. Public sentiment quickly 
turned against Salisbury, who finally yielded to the 
demand that the dispute be arbitrated. The court of arbi- 
tration, which met at Paris (1899), decided England was 
entitled to about five-sixths of what she claimed. The 
best feature of this case was avoiding war by arbitration. 

596. The Newfoundland fisheries arbitration (1910). 
For a hundred years there had been disputes over the 
fishing grounds off the coast of Newfoundland (§160). 
jMany unsuccessful attempts had been made to reach a 
settlement. In 1910 the United States and Great Britain 
referred the question to the Hague Tribunal. The deci- 
sion gave Great Britain the right to make reasonable rules 
for fishing on the Banks, but she was required to let the 
American fishermen go on shore to dry their fish and to 
buy bait and supplies. 

What a fine thing it is that these two great nations, 
the United States and Great Britain, have formed a 
habit of settling their differences by arbitration instead 
of war! If other nations were as willing to do this, war 
would soon be no more. 

597. The Hague meetings. In 1899 the Czar of 
Russia called a peace meeting of the nations at The Hague 
in Holland. For years all great nations had been building 
big navies and adding to their armies. Each feared it 
would be caught unprepared when war came. This 
system piled up taxes on the people, and almost every- 
body was tired of it. And so twenty-seven countries, 
among them the United States, sent delegates to the 
conference. They did not succeed in putting an end to 
war, but some rules were adopted for making war less 
terrible. A permanent court of arbitration was created. 



INTERNATIONAL ARBITRATION 



,1 '^.l 



Nations were invited to Ijring their disputes to it for 
settlement. The United States was the first nation 
to submit a case to this court for arbitration. 





II '"'^ li ilfi mid,, 



^^ 



*^ ■•^' 



lllh, C\RNEGIE PE\CE P\L\CL \T THE H\CUL 

Many friends of peace felt that the meeting of 1899 
only made a start toward getting rid of war. President 
Roosevelt w^as one of these. He urged the Czar to call 
another meeting. This was done in 1907. Forty-four 
countries sent representatives. Much more was done 
at the second Hague Conference than at the first. Defi- 
nite rules were made on such subjects as arbitration, the 
rights of. neutrals, and the way in which war is to be 
carried on. There were thirteen of these rules, or "con- 
ventions," as they were called. Most of them were 
accepted by the leading nations of the world. 

The two Hague meetings did not put an end to war 
as had been hoped. The nations of Europe were so filled 
with hatred and suspicion of one another that their agree- 
ments amounted to little. Many people came to believe 
we could not get rid of war until some way was found for 
compelling nations to arbitrate questions in dispute. 



384 OUR NEW POSITION IN THE WORLD 

598. Progress at home. Three notable attempts have 
been made in recent years to put the United States on 
a general arbitration basis. Roosevelt and Taft made 
efforts in this direction without much success, but when 
Wilson took office he made peace treaties with thirty 
nations. William Jennings Bryan, secretary of state 
at that time, was largely responsible for these treaties. 
They are called the "wait-a-bit" treaties because the 
nations agreed they would wait a year after a dispute 
arose before going to war. This delay gives a chance for 
study of the question and also for the nations to "cool 
off." If all nations had followed this rule, the terrible 
World War would probably have been avoided. 

THE NEWER MONROE DOCTRINE 

599. Venezuela again in trouble (1902). Citizens of 
England, Germany, and Italy had loaned money to 
Venezuela. For several years Venezuela had paid nothing 
on this debt. Finally these nations sent German and 
British war vessels to blockade Venezuelan ports and 
seize the custom houses to collect the debt. The blockade 
had lasted a year. Then President Roosevelt persuaded 
Venezuela to submit the question to arbitration and a 
settlement was soon reached. 

600. Santo Domingo. In 1904 Santo Domingo also 
was in debt to Europe and suffered from revolution. 
European powers threatened to collect the debt by force. 
At the request of Santo Domingo Roosevelt took charge 
of its finances. Since then money matters have been 
better managed and danger of collection by force has 
disappeared. Twice under the treaty American troops 
have been used to put down disorder. The United States 
also shouldered the same tasks in Haiti for a time. 




VM'jV »P^?)P7 



Vjncs 'pnt»»i 



THE NEWER MOXROE DOCTRINE 



i^S 



6oi. The situation in Mexico. In 191 1 a revolution 
drove President Diaz from the country.-'-* With Diaz 



fe-^s^i^ 




A DIVISION OF AMERICAN TROOPS IN MEXICO 

gone the country entered upon a ])eriod of civil war, 
Madero, Huerta, and Carranza in turn holding the 
office of president. None could restore order. 

Europeans and Americans have invested large sums of 
money in Mexican mines, ranches, railroads, and oil wells. 
Many of these properties were ruined by Mexicans. 
American citizens were carried off by bandits and held for 
ransom. Others were ruthlessly murdered. Mexican 
bandits even crossed the border and killed Americans on 
American soil. A demand arose that the United States 
send an army into Mexico. Both Presidents Taft and 
Wilson refused to do this. To do, so they held, would 
mean war with all its evils. They said Mexico could 
hardly be held responsible as no real government existed 
there. This view roused much bitter criticism in and out 
of Congress. When war threatened, Argentine, Brazil, 
and Chile brought about an agreement. This was the 
so-called "A. B. C." intervention.-'^ 

602. New meaning of the Monroe Doctrine. The 
settlement of the questions in Santo Domingo, Venezuela, 
and Mexico proves that a new meaning is being given to 
14 



386 



OUR NEW POSITION IN THE WORLD 



the Monroe Doctrine. It shows that we will not allow 
armed force to be used against Latin- American states for 
collecting debts unless they refuse to arbitrate. This 
seems to mean that we should control the money of such 
a government when this happens. It also shows that 
Argentine, Brazil, and Chile are becoming partners w4th us 
in sustaining the Monroe Doctrine and keeping the peace 
between the countries of the Western Hemisphere. 

603. The Pan-American Congress. James G. Blaine, 
secretary of state under Harrison, like Clay,-'^ wanted 




THE PAN-AMERICAN UNION BUILDING, WASHINGTON, D.C. 

the Latin-American states and the United States to 
become better friends. So in i88g, on invitation of the 
president, representatives from all these states except 
Santo Domingo came to Washington to hold a conference. 
It was the first time men from all these countries had 
been together in our land. They had no power to make 
laws, but they discussed a great many questions of com- 
mon interest and united in making recommendations to 



THE np:\ver aionroe doctrine 3S7 

their governments. They agreed that there ought to be 
free navigation of all American rivers, uniform systems 
of weights and measures, and an international banking' 
system. This was the first of four such meetings. 

604. Pan-American Union. The Pan-American Union 
was created by the first Pan-American Congress (§603). 
It is composed of representatives of the Latin-American 
states living in Washington, and our secretary of state 
is chairman of its board of directors. Its headquarters 
are a building in Washington donated by Andrew Carnegie. 
The purpose of the Union is to keep up friendly feeHngs and 
to develop commerce between the member countries. 

SUGGESTED READINGS 

References for teachers: Bassett, Short History, 827-849; Ha- 
worth, Reconstruction and Union, chap, vii; Wilson, Division and 
Reunion, chap, xiv; Latane, America as a World Power, chaps, ii-vi, ix, 
xi, xii, xiv-xvi; Crow, America and the Philippines; Fish, American 
Diplomacy; Johnson, The Panama Canal and Commerce; Hart, The 
Monroe Doctrine; Ross, The Changing Chinese; Steiner, The Japanese 
Invasion; Hart, Contemporaries, IV, chaps, xxix-xxxii. 

References for pupils: Morris, The War with Spain; Bowman, 
South America; Gatise and Carr, The Story of Panama; Dewey, Auto- 
biography of George Deivey; Hart, Source Book, nos. 140-145; James, 
Readings in American History, chaps, xxix, xxx, nos. 100^102; FUnt, 
Marching with Gomez; Barrows, History of the Philippines. 

Fiction: Kiphng, Captains Courageous; Stratemeyer, Under Dewey 
at Manila; Reeve, The Panama Pilot; Burks, Barbara's Philippiiie 
Journey. 

PROBLEMS AXD PROJECTS 

I. Imagine yourself one of Hobson's men. Write an account of 
"Bottling up the Spaniards at Santiago." 2. Write about "My trip 
to the Panama Canal." 3. You are a Chinese student in an American 
iuiiversit3\ Write a letter to your sister in China telling of the day's 
experiences at your university. 4. Your home is on a ranch near the 
Mexican border and you are visiting a friend in Chicago. You are 
trying to show him why the United States should send troops into 
Mexico. Topic, "An experience with Mexican bandits." 



CHAPTER XXIV 
ECONOMIC PROBLEMS 

IMMIGRATION 

605. Civil War period. During the Civil War the tide 
of immigration fell to less than a hundred thousand per 
year, but by 1873 it had again risen to almost a half 
million. The government treated these people kindly. 
They were allowed to take up farms in the West. They 
were also allowed to pay their way over by making 
contracts in advance with employers. But contract labor 
produced bad effects and after four years was prohibited. 

The great grain-growing states of the Northwest 
benefited by the immigration of vSwedes, Norwegians, and 
Danes, which began in the sixties and continued for forty 
years. From 1870 to 1^80 over 650,000 arrived. They 
settled mostly in Minnesota, Nebraska, and the Dakotas, 
developing comfortable farms, and in every way proving 
themselves worthy American citizens. 

606. Railroads and immigration. The coAnection of 
railroads with immigration is very close. As the roads 
were pushed into the Northwest during the sixties, 
seventies, and eighties, great regions were opened to 
settlement. The railroads wanted this country settled and 
turned into farms as quickly as possible. They wanted 
to get pay for carrying the produce of the region. They 
sent agents to Northern Europe to persuade immigrants 
to come over. The plan was very successful. The rapid 
development of the Northwest was largely due to the 
efforts of the railroad companies. 

388 



nrAriORATiON 3S9 

607. The change in immigration. Alany of the early 
immigrants from Northern Europe went to the new West. 
Others became laborers on the railroads and other building 
enterprises. A third large group turned to the factories 
and mines. In 1880 practically one-third of the people 
in our factories and mines were immigrants. 

About 1890 the number of people coming from Northern 
Europe began to fall off, a growing number coming from 
Southern and Eastern Europe. During the years 1880-90, 
half a million Russians, Poles, and Italia:ns, came knocking 
at our gates. But this was only a beginning. In a little 
while the stream became a torrent. Many Slavs, as 
well as Jews, Hungarians, Greeks, Roumanians, and 
Turks were crowding into our big cities. In one year 
(1914) immigration reached the astonishing figure of 
1,218,000.-'" 

608. Why the later immigrants went to the cities. By 
the end of the nineteenth century the free or cheap land 
had all been taken up. Anyway, these newcomers did 
not understand farm life in America. They were used to 
the village life of Eastern Europe, so they settled in the 
cities. They found work in factories, foundries, ship- 
yards, mines, and steel mills. The employers were glad 
to get them, for they were used to low pay and hard work. 
While they have contributed greatly to the upbuilding 
and wealth of the country, their coming to America has 
given rise to serious problems. 

609. The effect upon cities. The various nationaHties 
settled in separate groups in the cities. In a little while 
every city bad its Italian, its Polish, or its Roumanian 
quarter, and so on. These people built churches, founded 
newspapers, and started their own stores and banks. Soon 
political leaders appeared among them, "bosses" who 



390 ECONOMIC PROBLEMS 

turned their votes this way or that for their own gain. 
Soon poHtical parties were struggHng with one another 
to get their votes. This is bad not only for America but 
also for the foreign citizens. It keeps them in groups 
and prevents their becoming familiar with American 
institutions and American ideals. 

Our great cities are now largely made up of foreigners. 
In 1 910, 40 per cent of the people in New York City, 
35 |}er cent of those in Chicago, and 29 per cent of those 
in Cleveland were' foreign-born. These percentages have 
increased steadily. 

610. Restrictions. The shifting in immigration from 
Northern to Southern and Eastern Europe startled our 
people. A demand arose that immigration be made more 
difficult. As long as there was a supply of cheap or free 
land the- newcomers could find a place on the soil without 
harming anyone. But when the tide turned to factory, 
mill, and mine, the American workman, whose standard 
of living was different, at once felt that it harmed him. 
He said the immigrants kept wages down by working for 
pay that would starve him. 

American labor first objected to the Chinese. The 
feeling in California has long been bitter toward them, 
not only because of their race, but because they work 
for such low wages. As a consequence a law was passed 
(1882) shutting off Chinese immigration for ten years. 
This has been renewed. Lunatics, anarchists, and per- 
sons having contagious diseases are also shut out by law. 
In 191 7 Congress excluded people who cannot read their 
own language. After the World War the inflow of 
immigrants was as great as before. 

611. Japanese immigration. On the Pacific coast the 
Japanese question is a live one. The labor unions object 



IMMIGRATION 39i 

Strongly to the presence of the Japanese. They say the 
Japanese, Uke the Chinese, work for a low wage and thus 
drive out American workmen. In 1 906 the San Francisco 
school board ordered all Japanese and Chinese children 
put in separate schools. The Japanese government 
immediately protested, and a good deal of bad feehng was 
stirred up between the two nations. President Roosevelt 
got the trouble smoothed out, but there is no doubt 
that California was acting within her rights. Again, m 
1013 Cahfornia passed a law forbidding Japanese to own 
land in that state. The law still stands, although Japan 
has protested. The Federal government is m a difficult 
position While it makes treaties with foreign nations, 
it has no power to control the state in such matters. 
Japan does not want her workmen to come here and has 
agreed not to let them come. Yet she feels that the 
United States regards her people as an inferior race and 
resents any action that applies to them and not to other 

peoples. . 

612. Naturalization. When an immigrant wishes to 
become a citizen of the United States, he must go through 
certain steps in the courts. He files with the clerk of 
the court a statement that he wants to be "naturahzed. 
He must have been in the country at least three years 
before he can do this. In this statement he must give his 
name age, and occupation, tell when he arrived m the 
country, and agree to give up all loyalty to his former 
ruler and country. He then receives his "first papers. 
After two years he files a petition asking for full citizen- 
ship He must have two witnesses who have known him 
and will swear that he has obeyed the laws and is loyal 
to this country. After another ninety days he is given 
his "second papers" and becomes a full-fledged citizen.- ' 



392 



ECONOMIC PROBLEMS 



Only people of the white race or of African descent may be 
naturalized, and anarchists and polygamists are excluded. 




TAKING THE OATH OF CITIZENSHIP 



613. The immigration problem. America faces a real 
problem in this immigration question. The early immi- 
grants from Northern Europe knew something of govern- 
ment by representatives of the people and were of the same 
race as those already here. They easily adjusted them- 
selves to American ideals. It was not so easy for those 
that followed them. Many of these people were unable 
to read and write. They knew little of free government 
and were used to low standards of living. It was hard 
for them to become Americans. This was not their fault; 
they wanted to learn, but, crowded together in the big 
cities and employed as cheap labor, they had little chance 
to learn the true spirit of America. 

614. Americanization. A good deal is being done 
today for the "Americanizing" of these people. All 
children of school age must be in school, learning about 



organizp:d labor 393 

American institutions and ideals and learning to love 
America. In the large cities night schools are being 
established for the grown-up men and women ; here they 
can learn to read the English language and to think in 
English. There is an earnest endeavor to make the 
immigrants feel that America wants them to have a fair 
chance to earn good wages and to live according to Ameri- 
can ways. America believes in the "square deal." But 
the immigrant must be taught that we have orderly ways 
of doing things and that violence will not be allowed. 
The "old" Americans should set a good example of 
fair-mindedness and patriotism to "new" Americans. 
America is not simply a country in which people may get 
wealth, a sort of boarding-house for all nations. It is a 
land struggling to show the world that "a government of 
the people, by the people, and for the people" can be 
maintained. In this task it has a right to ask the help of 
every American, "old" or "new." 

ORGANIZED LABOR 

615. Labor before the Civil War. In the early days 
of the Republic the rule was for each workman to deal 
directly with his employer. There were very few unions, 
and these were found only among skilled workers (§386). 
The spirit of the times was hostile to unions, and strikes 
were unlawful. Leaders of strikes were sent to jail. 
They were declared guilty of plotting. By 1845 these 
early unions had about died out. 

616. Effect of the Civil War. The Civil War caused a 
great rise in prices. This result follows all wars. Wages 
did not keep up with prices, and the workers found it 
harder and harder to live. So again they began to form 
unions. Three great unions of railway workers and about 



394 ECONOMIC PROBLEMS 

fifty other associations were organized. A national 
organization, the Knights of Labor, was formed which 
took in all workers without regard to their trades. This 
was a powerful organization claiming at one time (1886) 
at least 730,000 members. It organized a number of 
strikes. These failed, and trouble arose between the 
skilled and unskilled workers. This order soon lost its 
power. 

617. The American Federation of Labor. The Ameri- 
can Federation of Labor took the place of the Knights 
of Labor. This organization is made up of different trade 
unions. Each city has its own printers', carpenters', 
and other unions. These unions are united in state 
federations. Each city, too, has its central labor union 
made up of all the unions in the city. The Federation 
does not include unskilled workers. Above all is the 
national organization composed of men from the different 
unions. This order has grown in membership from 
200,000 in 1890 to 3,260,000 in lyrg. About 10 per cent 
of the people listed in gainful occupations in the entire 
country are members. The four great railroad brother- 
hoods, numbering a quarter of a million men, are not 
members of the Federation. In counting the number of 
unionized men in the country they should be added. 

618. Collective bargaining. The main thing the Fed- 
eration of Labor stands for is "collective bargaining." 
The union chooses men to meet the employers and discuss 
such questions as hours, wages, and conditions of work. 
If these men from the union agree with the employers on 
certain wages and hours, all union men are bound to work 
on the terms thus fixed- The union men believe they get 
better wages and shorter hours in this way than they 
would if each man bargained for himself. Many serious 



ORGANIZED LABOR 



395 



questions have grown out of the practice of collective 

bargaining. , r ^ u 

6iQ. Organized employers. The growth of labor 
unions led employers to organize. These men are con- 
nected with steel making, coal mining, the makmg of 
clothing, and many other things. Many of these asso- 
ciations were united in 1893 into the National Association 
of Manufacturers. Later the Citizens' Industrial Asso- 
ciation of America was formed." Still later came the 
National Manufacturers' Association. Thus we see that 
both labor and capital are organized. 

620 Strikes. When workers fail to get what they 
want from their employer, they often quit work m a 
body This is a strike. They believe the employer can 




STRIKE RIOT 



be brought to terms in this way because every day the 
plant is shut down he loses money. To make the stnke 



396 ECONOMIC PROBLEMS 

a success they try to keep non-union men from taking 
their places. This leads to trouble and sometimes to 
violence. When a strike is called at a factory, some 
union men stay near the factory to warn non-union men 
or strike-breakers away. This is called "picketing." 
Sometimes employers close their factories to force the 
men to come to their terms. This is a "lockout." 

Between 1900 and 1910 there were many strikes in the 
United States. In coal mining (1908-17) each worker 
lost on an average thirty-eight days a year because of 
strikes. In 1914 the average loss was sixty-eight days.-'*' 
Some of the costliest strikes in recent years were the great 
railway strike of 1894, the strike of hard-coal miners of 
Pennsylvania in 1902, and the strike of the Colorado 
coal miners in 191 4 and 191 5. 

621. The Chicago strike of 1886. The strike of fifty 
thousand workers in Chicago in 1886 shows how hard it is 
to keep down violence during strikes. The city held a nest 
of anarchists who had been driven out of Europe and had 
come here to spread their doctrines of destruction and 
murder. Anarchists are opposed to all government and 
believe in using any kind of violence to destroy it. At a 
big public meeting held in the Haymarket a bomb was 
thrown that killed seven policemen and wounded sixty 
others. Some of the anarchists were caught, and after a 
trial four were hanged. These anarchists had no connec- 
tion with the unions. They had taken advantage of the 
disorder caused by the strike to do their deadly work. 

622. Arbitration. The strike is industrial war. It 
always costs the workers and employers great sums of 
money, but it costs the public still more. This fact has 
led to a demand that some way besides strikes should 
be found to settle such disputes. When the hard-coal 



ORGANIZED LABOR 397 

strike came on in Pennsylvania in iyo2, ihe people 
demanded arbitration. This meant that somebody like 
the president should appoint a board of judges to study 
the whole question and give a decision as to what the 
miners should have. The miners were willing, but the 
owners were not. President Roosevelt said, "No man 
and no group of men can so exercise their rights as to 
deprive the nation of the things necessary and vital to 
the common life." He appointed a board of arbitration, 
and the owners had to submit their case to it. A decision 
was given, and the miners went to work. 

Many states have boards of arbitration. The Federal 
government, too, has made several laws providing for 
settling labor disputes. One of them was .the Erdman 
Arbitration Act to cover strikes on railways. Another 
was the Newlands Act.-^^ In 1913 the new Department of 
Labor w^as created by Congress. The secretary of labor 
was given power to act as "mediator" in strike troubles. 

623. The boycott and the injunction. Sometimes the 
union asks people to stop buying goods from an employer 
whose men are on a strike. This is a "boycott." vSuch 
an employer is said to be "unfair" to union labor. 

An injunction is an order issued by a judge telling some- 
body that he must not do a certain thing. If he dis- 
obeys, the judge will punish him. Labor unions are 
opposed to the use of injunctions. They say it gives the 
judge too much power in labor disputes and that it is 
used to prevent workers from getting their rights. They 
complain because juries were not u.sed in injunction cases. 

624. The Clayton Act. The labor unions for years 
kept demanding new laws on such subjects as picket- 
ing, boycott, and injunction. In 191 4 Congress passed the 
Clayton Anti-Trust Act, which deals with these subjects 



398 ECONOMIC PROBLEMS 

as well as with trusts. This law declared that labor 
unions could not be prosecuted as trusts. Second, it 
limits the kind of disputes in which injunctions can be 
used. Third, if a man is arrested for disobeying an 
injunction, this law gives him the right to call for a jury 
trial. Fourth, it declares that strikes, picketing, and 
boycotts do not violate any Federal law (§§620, 623). 
The Clayton Act was a great victory for the unions. 

625. The unions and politics. One might think that 
the labor unions with- their large numbers of members 
would form a political party and elect their own men to 
office. Some of the union leaders think this the best 
thing to do, but the majority of them, led by Mr. Gompers, 
oppose this.- They think it is much better to decide 
what laws they want and then go to the big political 
parties and offer them the labor vote if they will promise 
to enact these laws. 

FACTORY ACTS 

626. Child labor. Children have worked in factories 
from the very beginning of the factory system, but many 
people have always thought it a bad custom (§374).^^^ It 
not only kept the children out of school, but it stunted 
their growth and took work away from grown-up men 
and women. The opposition to it got so strong that by 
1913 thirty-one states had passed laws against it. Some 
states have been very slow to protect the children. Con- 
gress placed a tax of 10 per cent on goods intended for 
interstate commerce if they are made in factories where 
children under fourteen are employed (191 9). A Chil- 
dren's Bureau was established in 191 2 by act of Congress. 
It is to look after the welfare of children and has done 
valuable work. Several states, too, have passed laws 



FACTORY ACTS 



399 



limiting the hours women may work and keeping them 
out of certain occupations that endanger health. 

627. Safety. Many states now have laws requiring 

good venti- t=~. ._ 

lation, plenty 
of light, and 
other sanitary 
arrangements 
in factories. 
Machinery 
that is likely 
to catch the 
worker and 
injure him 
must be cover- 
ed. The states 
keep inspect- 
ors whose busi- 
ness it is to go 
among the 
factories and 
see that these 
measures are 
carried out. 

628. Work- 

ingmen's compensation. In spite of all that is done tc 
make workers safe, there is still a shocking number ol 
accidents each year. Men are crushed, crippled, and 
killed in large numbers. ^-^ In 191 7 over 3,000 railway 
employees were killed and over 156,000 injured. 

In the old days when a man got hurt his only hope oi 
getting anything from the employer to help him live and 
keep his family was to go to law with the employer. 




CHILDREN A! WORK IN .\ COIION MILL 



400 



ECONOMIC PROBLEMS 



This was too slow and costly a method. Now it is changed. 
Forty-two states, the territories of Alaska and Hawaii, and 
Porto Rico all now have Workingmen's Compensation 
Acts. A half milHon employees of the Federal govern- 
ment likewise are protected by laws of this kind. These 







Courtesy of Armour and Company 
THE kEST ROOM Ul- A (;REAT MANUFACTURING ESTABLISHMENT 

laws say how much the worker's family shall receive if 
he is killed. 2'' By these means the worker can get good 
hospital care and get back to his work in a short time. 
If he dies, his family will not have to be broken up. It 
is much better than the old way.^-'' 

629. Welfare work. Many employers realize that 
people will do better work if they are contented. Hence 
they carry on what is called "welfare work." This takes 
the form, in part, of a community clubhouse which is 
free to all the workmen of the company. In the club- 
house are bowling alleys, swimming pools, reading and 
visiting rooms. Here are bands, dramatic clubs, and 
debating clubs. Here, too, the young people meet for 
their dances and social affairs. The company pays 
visiting nurses to go to the homes of the employees who 



THE TRUSTS 401 

are iniured or ill. Some companies maintain systems of 
insurance and pension systems for their workers. 

THE TRUSTS 

630. What trusts are. Before 1880 if a man had a few 

hundred dollars and wanted to start a factory he formed * 
a partnership with some other man and began business. 
He met plenty of competition, but the competition came 
from firms like his own. The product was small, and the 
profits were small. Later certain shrewd men got the 
stronger firms to combine. This combination could break 
down weaker firms and control the industry. A big 
factory or mill could produce goods more cheaply than a 
small factory or mill. It could use more labor-saving 
machinery, buy its raw materials and fuel in big lots, 
and get lower rates from the railroads for carrying its 
goods. This was the beginning of "big business." 

631. Growth of trusts. John D. Rockefeller, of Cleve- 
land, persuaded forty oil-producing concerns to put them- 
selves in the hands of a board of "trustees." The 
trustees were to run the business. This new company 
was the Standard Oil Company. It w^as the first trust. 
The producers of sugar, whisky, cottonseed oil, rubber 
goods, and dozens of other articles followed this example. 
Before 1904 something like three hundred combinations 
had been formed. In 1904 there were over nineteen 
hundred companies, each with a capital of over $1 ,000,000. 
By 1909 the number had grown to over three thousand. 
Hundreds of shoe factories, woolen mills, sugar refineries, 
and other plants were closed down and their business 
turned over to the big producers. Thus the number of 
business firms grew smaller. The biggest business firm 
in the world, the United States Steel Corporation, had 



402 ECONOMIC PROBLEMS 

a capital of $1,400,000,000, controlled 180 companies, 
and employed over 200,000 men. 

632. Combinations of railroads. Before the Civil 
War railroads were not more than fifty to one hundred 
miles long. They usually connected neighboring cities. 
But before the war combination of these lines had started 
(§397). Men like Cornelius Vanderbilt saw the advan- 
tage of connecting different roads into one system. In 
this way the New York Central, the Pennsylvania, and 
the Baltimore and Ohio systems were built up. Cities 
like New York and Chicago, Pittsburgh and St. Louis, 
were connected by single railroad systems. The Civil 
War checked the union of roads, but it began again 
soon after the war. During the eighties and nineties 
railroad building went on rapidly, and combining kept 
on. There are now about thirteen hundred railroad 
lines in the country, but most of them are only parts 
of some great system. It is said that now only five or 
six systems control all of these lines.-"' 

633. What the people thought. As the process of 
building big business went on, the people became angry. 
They said a small producer had no chance against the 
big companies and that the latter used unfair methods. 
They compelled the railroads to carry their goods at 
lower rates than were charged the little ones. This was 
true. Yet while the big companies produced more cheaply, 
the people got no benefit in the form of lower prices. 

634. The Sherman Anti-Trust Act. In 1890 Congress 
passed the Sherman Anti-Trust Act. The object was to 
prevent these great combinations from getting in their 
hands all the business in any one line. This would check 
trade. Harrison, Cleveland, and McKinley did Httle to 
enforce this law. But Roosevelt and Taft made a big 



THE TRUSTS 403 

fight against the trusts. In only a few cases did the gov- 
ernment win. The most important victories were the 
Standard Oil case and the American Tobacco Company 
case. The Supreme Court ordered these companies broken 
up into a number of smaller companies which would compete 
with one another. But no reduction in price followed. 
In 1 9 14 Congress made the law stronger (§624). 

635. What v/e have learned. Out of all this discussion 
and lawmaking two points have become clear, (i) Big 
business is not necessarily bad because it is big. It seems 
to be a natural and proper development so long as it keeps 
within the law and does not become a monopoly. (2) It is 
also pretty clear that we cannot hope to destroy big 
business nor to prevent its development. But a way 
should be found to control it for the benefit of all the people. 

suggp:sted readings 

References for teachers: Bassett, Short History, 765-827; Ogg, 
National Progress, chaps, iv, vii; Latane, America as a World Power, 
chap, xvii; Ferine, T/ie Story of the Trust Companies; McCabe, Media- 
tion, Investigation, and Arbitratioji in Industrial Disputes; Ross, The 
Old World and the New; Steiner, On the Trail of the Immigrant; Bogart, 
Eco)iomic History, chap, xxxi; Ely, Monopolies and Trusts; Hart, 
Contemporaries, IV, no. 201 ; Henderson, Citizens in Industry. 

References for pupils: Antin, They Who Knock at Our Gates; 
Warman, The Story of the Railroad; Hughes, Community Civics; Ashley, 
The NeiiJ Civics; IMagmder, American Government; James, Readings in 
American History, chap, xxvii. 

PROBLEMS AND PROJECTS 

I, You have been in the United States a month. You came from 
Eastern Europe and are writing back home. Topic, "My first 
month in America." 2. Topic, "How I became a naturalized citizen." 
3. Topic, "Why I came to America." 4. You are supposed to 
belong to a labor union, and you are trying to show a fellow workman 
why he should join. Topic, "Why I belong to the union." Then 
give the other man's views in a composition entitled "Why I do not 
belong to the tinion." 5. Topic "Why I am against child labor," 
or "Why I like to work in the factory," or "The adventures of a tele- 
graph messenger boy." 



CHAPTER XXV 
POLITICAL REFORMS 

CHANGES IN GOVERNMENT 

636. The old way. When a man wanted to be elected 
to an office he went among the voters of his party and 
asked them to favor him for office; that is, he tried to 
secure the nomination. Of course other men in the same 
party wanted the same office, so some way had to be found 
to decide which man got the nomination. In the early 
days the leading politicians and office-holders settled the 
question of nominations in a meeting of their own called 
a caucus. But about the time of Andrew Jackson (§358) 
people got tired of having the candidates picked for 
them, and they began holding conventions to make nomi- 
nations. After all parties had made their nominations 
in this way the election was held. Years later people 
came to believe these conventions were run by the bosses. 
They decided to hold nominating elections and choose 
the candidates themselves. 

637. Primary elections. When a party holds an elec- 
tion to decide who its candidates shall be, that election 
is called a primary. During the period 1904-12 almost 
all the states established the system of holding primaries 
under state authority. When a voter goes to a primary^ 
election, he must make his choice from the members of 
his own party. The men thus chosen are the candidates 
of that party for office. Later, at a regular election, 
the voters choose one man from among the candidates 
of the different parties for the office. 

404 



ClIAXdES IX GOVERXMEXT 405 

638. Presidential preference primaries. Twenty-one 
states now give the voters a chance to say whom they 
desire as candidates for the presidency. This is called 
the presidential preference primary. But the national 
nominating conventions are still held. 

639. Ballot reform. In 1888 a new system of voting 
was introduced. It was called the "Australian" system 
and is still in use. Under the old system people crowded 
around the ballot box and a citizen could not vote with- 
out the bystanders knowing for whom he voted. This 
made bribery easy, as the man who gave the bribe could 
follow the voter right up to the box and see that he 
voted as he was paid to do. Then anybody could print 
ballots and hand them out, and the ballot box w^as open. 
This made cheating at the ballot box easy. 

Under the Australian system the voter must register 
or get his name on the list of voters before election day. 
Then the state prints the ballots w4th the names of the 
candidates on them. But, most important, the ballot is 
secret; a voter may cast his ballot without other people 
knowing how^ he votes. Every ballot is handed out by 
an officer and is numbered. The voter steps into a 
little booth and marks the names of his choice. Then 
the ballot is put into the ballot box. Later the ballots 
are counted.-^ 

640. The short ballot. There are so many names on 
a ballot that the voter knows only a few of them per- 
sonally. This has led to a movement to make the ballot 
more simple by making it shorter. The idea is to put 
on the ballot the names of the men running for the most 
important offices and then leave them to appoint their 
helpers. This shortens the ballot. Some cities and a 
few states have made this change. 



4o6 POLITICAL REFORMS 

641. Direct legislation. In spite of the effort to have 
a real democracy in this country, many people have 
felt that things too often go wrong. Officers sometimes 
refuse to do what the people want and again they do 
things that the people do not like. People said that 
the members of the legislatures obeyed the "bosses" 
and the "interests" rather than the people who had 
elected them. For this reason three measures known 
as the initiative, referendum, and recall were invented 
and put to work. 

642. The initiative. By this law a given number of 
the voters may propose laws. An election is then held 
in which the voters of the state, county or city vote for 
or against the proposed measures. If a majority favor 
them, they become laws. 

643. The referendum. In the initiative we have 
pointed out one way in which a law may be referred to 
the voters. Another is this — if a legislature passes a 
law that a certain number of the voters oppose, they 
can get up a petition and prevent the enforcement of the 
law until the people can say in an election whether they 
want it or not. South Dakota, the first state to use 
this system, adopted it in 1898. Now twenty-two 
states use the initiative and referendum. 

644. The recall. The recall is a plan to get officers 
with whom the people are dissatisfied out of office before 
the end of their term. Usually, under this law, a 
certain per cent of the voters sign a petition asking for 
the recall of an officer; he must then resign or must submit 
himself to the voters at a second election. Oregon, in 
1908, was the first state to adopt the recall. Ten states 
since that time have adopted this law, but in four of 
them it does not apply to judges. Some of these states 



CITY GOVERNMENT 407 

are Louisiana, Washington, Arizona, California, and 
Michigan. 

645. Direct election of United States senators. The 

Constitution provides (Art. I, §3) that the legislatures 
of the states shall choose the United States senators. 
People became dissatisfied with this system and changed 
it. They said it was not democratic. So in 19 13 the 
Seventeenth Amendment was adopted by which the 
senators are elected by the people. 

CITY GOVERNMENT 

646. The problem. In 1880 only about one-fourth of 
the whole nation lived in cities; in 1920 fully one-half 
of all our people were found there. Our ten largest 
cities contain over 14 per cent of the entire popu- 
lation of the country. This growth of the cities has 
created many serious problems, none of them more 
serious than the problem of how to govern the city. 
There are so many things that a city government must 
do. It must look after schools, paving, lighting, water 
supply, police, sewers, and finances. The average citizen 
knows little about these things and can learn but little 
about them. So he leaves the management of the city's 
affairs to its officers and pays little attention to them. 
This failure of the citizens gives bosses and political 
rings a chance to run the affairs of the city about as 
they please. For this reason we have had much bad 
city government. It is clear that we have had less 
success with city than with either state or • national 
government. 

647. The city and the state. All cities are under the 
control of the state. The city government may do only 
such things as the state legislature permits it to do. 



4o8 POLITICAL REFORMS 

The cities are usually put into four classes according to 
size. There is a certain type of government in all cities 
of the same class. The paper in which the powers of 
the city and the duties of the officers are described is 
called a charter. A few states allow cities to frame 
their own charters, but they must be approved by the 
legislature. 

648. Ordinary type of city government. Most cities 
have a mayor and a council, both elected by the voters 
of the city.-"'' The council makes the city laws, and 
it is the mayor's business to enforce them. There has 
been a great deal of complaint about graft and waste 
of money in city government. Many people thought 
this was due to the form of city government, so they 
devised a nevv plan 

649. The commission plan. The new plan provided 
that commissioners usually five, should be elected. The 
commissioners make the city laws and control the admini- 
stration. Their duties are thus both law-making and 
law-enforcing. Each cornmissioner is responsible for 
some branch of city government, as one looks after 
the police and fire departments, another streets and 
alleys, and so on. The initiative, referendum, and recall, 
in some form, usually go with the commission plan of 
city government. This plan was first used in Galveston, 
Texas. 

It was found that this new form of city government 
was better than the ordinary form. By 1918, 646 cities 
had adopted this plan. Among them were such impor- 
tant places as Buffalo, Denver, Cleveland, Dallas, and 
Newark. Later another improvement was made. 

650. City manager plan. The city manager plan is 
like the commission plan except that it brings in a trained 



SOCIALISM 409 

expert to manage the business affairs of the city. He is 
not supposed to be a poHtician. He is a business man. 
He must know how to run the city to 'make hfe and 
property safe and give the people the most for their 
money. The commissioners choose the city manager, 
pay him a good salary, and make him responsible for all 
administration. When the commissioners choose such 
a manager, they are supposed to select the best man to 
be found, no matter whether he lives in the city or not. 
The manager is expected to show good results just as 
is the manager of a factory, a mine, or any other large 
business. He is given the right to appoint all of his 
helpers and is held responsible for their work. In 1918, 
168 cities had hired city managers. Some of these cities 
were Wichita, Dayton, Norfolk, Grand Rapids, Dubuque, 
and Kalamazoo. 

651. Reason to be encouraged. All these changes in 
city government are encouraging. There has been a 
vast improvement in city affairs all over the country. 
They show that the people want good government in 
the city and that they are willing to make experiments 
in order to get it. But it is well to remember that no 
form of popular government can be successful unless the 
citizens take an active interest in political matters. It 
is also plain that no form of city government can succeed 
without honest officers. ■ 

SOCIALISM 

652. The rise of socialism. Socialism first appeared 
in France during the great French Revolution (1789-98). 
It was brought to this country about the middle of the 
century by emigrants from Germany. The unrest of 
the eighties and nineties in the labor world caused many 



4IO POLITICAL REFORMS 

working people to turn to socialism. The socialists feel 
that the poor man has a hard time and little chance to 
gain wealth; arid the rich man lives in luxury and has all 
the good things of life. This leads them to think that 
the whole industrial world is wrong. They do not realize 
that most well-to-do people were once poor. 

653. What socialism teaches. Socialism teaches that 
the ownership of tools, such as machinery, railroads, and 
factories, puts great riches into the hands of the owners 
or capitalists. It says that capitalists are few while 
workmen number millions. It objects to a few persons 
being rich and many poor. 

What does socialism propose to do? It proposes 
that the government shall own all means of production ; 
and that it operate all land, railroads, factories, mines, 
and machinery. The capitalist as an owner would be 
entirely wiped out. All workers would work for the 
state. The socialists think this would do away with 
poverty and misery. Most people do not believe this. 

Not only socialists but thoughtful people everywhere 
want to see suffering and poverty grow less. The great 
reform movements of the last fifty years show that 
Americans are determined to make conditions better for 
the poor, but nothing will take the place of honesty, 
intelligence, and hard work. 

654. The Socialist party. The Socialist party was 
organized in 1898. In 1900 it nominated a candidate 
for the presidency and polled 87,000 votes. Since that 
time it has regularly taken part in politics. In 191 2 
almost 900,000 votes were cast for Eugene V. Debs, its 
candidate for the presidency. 

The Socialists have made a fight to get control of the 
American Federation of Labor, but so far have failed. 



WILSON'S ADMINISTRATION 



411 



Some 



THE FIRST WILSON ADMINISTRATION (1913-17) 

655. The Underwood Tariff. The years from 1896 to 
1913 were filled with earnest discussion of reform, 
important reform laws had 
been passed before Wilson 
became president. In the 
campaign of 191 2 the Demo- 
crats promised a reduction of 
the tariff if they were elected. 
Wilson called a special session 
of Congress to revise the tariff 
laws. A bill reducing the tariff 
rates on food, clothing, steel 
products, sugar, cotton goods, 
wool, and other articles was 
proposed by Representative 
Underwood of Alabama. After 
months of discussion it was 
passed. This meant a loss of 
many millions of dollars to 
the government. The Democrats promised to make up 
the loss by levying an income tax. 

656. Income tax. The income tax law of 1893 had 
been declared unconstitutional by the Supreme Court 
(§544), but in 1 913 the Constitution was changed by 
the Sixteenth Amendment to permit such a law. 
Congress now passed another income tax law which 
more than made up the loss caused by reducing the 
tariff. 

657. Federal Reserve Act.- About every twenty years 
the country has suffered from a financial panic. When banks 
suspected a panic was coming, each bank gathered in all 
the money it could get in order to be able to meet expected 




WOODROW WILSON 



412 



POLITICAL REFORMS 



demands upon it. Each bank had to look out for itself, 
and there was no way of combining the strength of the 
banks to resist the panic. This lessened the amount of 
money circulating among the people. It was believed, 
too, that the money and credit of the whole country 
tended to collect too much in the New York banks. The 
effect of this was to give New York control of all the 
finances of the nation. 

To meet this situation the Federal Reserve Act was 
passed in 1913. It placed all the national banks under 
the Federal Reserve Board and arranged to combine the 
strength of all the banks. These united banks can keep 
more money in circulation if a panic threatens. It 
established twelve reserve banks in twelve districts 
throughout the country. This prevents the money from 
being drawn to New York. The Federal Reserve cities 

are Boston, New York, Phila- 
delphia, Cleveland, Rich- 
mond, Atlanta, Chicago, St. 
Louis, Minneapolis, Kansas 
City, San Francisco, and 
Dallas. 

Other important acts of this 
period were the Farm Loan 
Bank Act (§713), the Clayton 
Act (§624), and the "Wait-a- 
Bit" treaties (§598). 

658. Trouble with Mexico. 
In 1 916, after the bandit 
Villa had killed seventeen 
Americans in New Mexico, 
President Wilson ordered a small army under General 
Pershing to capture Villa.'-" The president of Mexico 




JOHN J. PERSHING 



WILSON'S ADMIXISTRATIOX 413 

strongly opposed the sending of American soldiers to his 
country and ordered the Mexican army to stop General 
Pershing's advance. War seemed certain. But when 
Carranza saw that Wilson was in earnest, he proposed a 
conference. The Americans agreed and terms were 
fixed. Our troops then withdrew from Mexico. Trouble 
with Mexico continued until 1920, when Carranza was 
overthrown and better relations were established between 
the two countries. 

659. Purchase of the Virgin Islands. In 191 7 the 
United States bought the Virgin Islands from Denmark. 
These three islands, with some smaller ones, lie east of 
Porto Rico.--^ By this purchase, by the control of Porto 
Rico, Santo Domingo, and Haiti, and by our connection 
with Cuba, we control the Caribbean Sea and can protect 
the Panama Canal from European attack. 

SUGGESTED READINGS 

References for teachers : Bassett, Short History, 66$. 736-744, 774, 
776, 830; Ogg, National Progress, chaps, ix, xii, xiv-xvi; Munro, The 
Initiative, Referendum, and Recall; Barron, The Mexican Problem; 
Guitteau, Government and Politics in the United States; Woodburn, The 
American Republic; Hart, Contemporaries, IV, chap, xxxiii; Haworth, 
America in Ferment. 

References for pupils: Garner, Government in the United States; 
Lapp, Our America; Parsons, The Land of Fair Play; Hughes, Com- 
munity Civics; Ashley, llie New Civics; James, Readings in American 
History, no. 105. 

PROBLEMS AND PROJECTS 

I. You are an immigrant from Poland and have been naturalized. 
Yesterday you cast your first vote in America. Topic, "How I felt 
when I cast my first ballot." 2. "Why I should like to be a fire- 
fighter in a big city." 3. Your father keeps sheep on his farm in Ohio. 
Write a letter to Congressman Underwood telling him what you think 
of the Underwood tariff. 



CHAPTER XXVI 



THE GROWTH OF THE NATION 

THE GROWTH OF THE WEST— NEW STATES 

660. The territories. In 1880 two-thirds of the area of 
the United States was occupied by states; the other 




GROWTH OF SETTLED AREA FROM I87O TO I9IO 



third consisted of nine territories. This vast region, 
almost a milhon square miles in extent, lay along and 
spread out on each side of the Rockies. Colorado, cut 
out of this area, was made a state in 1876. Dakota 
and Indian Territory lay far out on the plains, and 
Washington stretched westward from the Rockies to 
the Pacific. 

There were good reasons for this being the last region 
to be occupied by the steady stream of settlers. It is 

414 



NEW STATES 415 

a rough, mountainous region of little rainfall, so farm- 
ing as carried on in the Mississippi Valley could not 
be successful. But in the mountains were great deposits 
of the precious metals, and stretching along the foothills 
and in the river valleys were ranges of grasslands on 
which cattle could feed. So the miners and cattle men 
had the country to themselves as long as there was 
good farming land to be had elsewhere. 

661. Dakota.^-'-* In 1862 Congress passed the Home- 
stead Act offering every genuine settler 160 acres of 
government land. This was to attract immigrants from 
Europe. They came. In the next ten years three 
million of them came! But not until about 1883 did 
the tide turn strongly to Dakota. In that year the 
Northern Pacific railroad was completed, and poured 
thousands of settlers into the Northwest. One author 
says, "Farmers settled in Dakota so rapidly that single 
counties with scarcely an inhabitant at the beginning of 
the summer were well populated at the end of the year." 
Before long the great "bonanza" 'farms were pouring 
torrents of spring wheat into the markets of the world. 
Between 1880 and 1890 the number of farms increased 
to over 60,000 and the acreage to over 15,250,000. This 
great growth led to a demand for statehood. In 1888 
the people of the territory decided to divide it into 
North Dakota and South Dakota. They were admitted 
as states the following year. 

662. Montana. Montana is rich in gold, silver, lead, 
and copper. This mineral wealth early drew settlers to 
this section, but the great forests soon attracted the 
lumbermen. Cattle raising was early developed on a 
large scale. Years later the wheat-growing region of 
the eastern part of the state came under cultivation. 



4t6 growth of the NATION 

During the years 1880-90 the population rose from 
40,000 to 132,000. Here again we see the influence of 
the Northern Pacific railroad upon the settlement of 
the Northwest. In 1889 Montana was admitted to the 
Union as a state. 

663. Washington. The year 1889 saw the admission 
of another state, Washington. When we read of Wash- 
ington we think of those intrepid explorers, Lewis and 
Clark, and of the days when the Astor Fur Company 
and the Northwest Company were struggling to get 
control of the fur trade of this region. 

Only its great distance from the centers of population 
prevented the early settlement of this country. But, as 
in Dakota and Montana, with the completion of the 
Northern Pacific the tide of settlers began to flow in. 
They found -a land rich in natural resources. Fertile 
farming country, great ranges for cattle, extensive for- 
ests of fir, cedar, spruce, and yellow pine, and a climate 
and soil ideal for fruit growing are all here. 

But this is not all its natural wealth. Coal, rare in 
the Northwest, is found, and the Columbia is known 
the world over for its salmon fisheries. A look at the 
map shows us the advantages this state enjoys in the 
way of ports on Puget Sound. We see why Seattle has 
become one of the big cities on the Pacific coast. It is 
no wonder that Washington had a larger population than 
any other of the nine territories admitted between 1880 
and 191 2. 

664. Wyoming (1890). The forty-third state admitted 
was Wyoming, a true mountain state. This territory 
was first entered by Verendrye, the French fur trader, 
and his sons about 1735. The first settlements grew up 
around the fur companies' trading posts. Fort Bridger 



NEW STATES 417 

on the Green River was one of these posts. Gold was 
discovered in 1867. Coal mining and cattle raising 
became the leading industries, and oil fields have been 
opened. 

In 1867 the Union Pacific railroad entered Wyoming 
and laid out Cheyenne, which became the capital. 

In the northwest corner of the state lies the famous 
Yellowstone Park. Thousands of tourists every year 
visit this wonderful playground to see its natural beauties. 

665. Idaho. Another mountain and mining state is 
Idaho, admitted in 1890.-^" Three great railroad systems, 
the Union Pacific, the Northern Pacific, and the Great 
Northern, cross this state. The small rainfall has pre- 
vented Idaho from becoming great in agriculture, but 
when the land is irrigated it yields most abundant crops. 
Like the other mountain states, Idaho has great forests. 

666. Utah. Utah, as we have seen, was settled by the 
Mormons (§374). The' territory belonged to Mexico 
then, but as a result of the Mexican War it was ceded to 
the United States. The Mormons were again living 
in the United States. Other settlers came in, attracted 
by the mines and the possibilities of sheep raising. The 
soil proved to be good for growing sugar beets, and that 
became an important industry. 

In 1896, Utah was admitted to the Union as a state. 
The constitution of the state forbids polygamy and says 
that this provision cannot be changed without the 
consent of Congress. 

667. Oklahoma. After long-continued troubles with 
the Indians east of the Mississippi, the government set 
aside a vast region of about 70,000 square miles in all, 
west of Arkansas, for them. This country, called Indian 
Territory, lay in the valleys of the Red, Canadian, and 

15 



4i8 



GROWTH OF THE NATION 



Arkansas rivers. White men were ordered to keep out 
of it. But they knew of its rieh lands and were con- 
tinually trying to break in and seize them. Finally the 
government bought the lands from the Indians and made 
the western half of them into Oklahoma Territory. 

668. The Oklahoma rush. A proclamation by Presi- 
dent Harrison announced that at noon, April 12, 1SS9, 
the territory would be open for settlers. Great crowds 
gathered along the border, anxious to rush in and estab- 
lish claims. People in wagons, on horseback, and on 
foot eagerly awaited the signal. At just twelve o'clock 
a bugle blast rang out, and they started across the line 
in a mad race for land. Fifty thousand people went in 
the first day. Before night towns were laid out, and 
banks, newspapers, and stores were established. In 1907 
Oklahoma was admitted as a state. 







:=SS^^ 




y / > . ) 




GUTHRIE ON THE FIRST NIGHT OF THE OPENING 

669. New Mexico and Arizona. Lying far over to 
the southwest in the arid region are New Mexico and 



NEW STATES 419 

Arizona. The first European to enter Arizona was 
Coronado, a Spaniard, who set out in 1540 to find the 

1 

/" i 



p "1 %f r 






h C 







:?':vr'!:!\m 









xV Vs 






GUTHRIE FOUR YEARS LATER, A THRIVING AND WELL-BUILT CITY 

mysterious Seven Cities of Cibola. Instead of reaching 
cities with streets of gold and silver he found only the 
simple dwellings of the clifT-dwellers. 

De A^aca, in his search for gold, entered the region 
now called New Mexico in 1536. 

The capital of New Mexico is the old Spanish town 
of Santa Fe founded early in the sixteenth century. ^^ 

Acquired by the United States as a result of the Mexi- 
can War, this area was organized as the territory of New 
Mexico in 1850. It included Arizona. In 1854 the 
"Gadsden Purchase" was added to it. Arizona was cut 
off and became a separate territory in 1867. This 
vast region, Arizona and New Mexico, more than six 
times as large as Indiana, is noted for its rich deposits 
of gold, silver, copper, and coal. Both of these ter- 
ritories, the last to become states, were admitted to the 



420 



GROWTH OF THE NATION 



Union in 191 2. The Santa Fe and the Southern Pacific 
railroads carried settlers to these states. 

670. The vanishing frontier. All good farming land 
of the public domain had been occupied by 1900. The 
Pacific railroads were responsible for the rapid develop- 
ment of this region (§§661-665). They poured thousands 
of settlers into the West, and farms and cities took the 




-'tS^C 



COWBOYS DRIVING CATTLE FROM THE PRAIRIE PASTURAGE 

place of desert and wilderness. No longer could men in 
the East who had failed in factory or on farm pile their 
goods into a ' ' prairie schooner ' ' or into a freight car and 
start west to seek their fortune on free government land. 
The farmers' sons of the East and Middle West, unable 
to buy western lands, turned to the factories and the 
mines for employment. The rush to the cities was on. 
From the earliest days of America there had been 
a frontier (§108). The intrepid Scotch-Irish, pushing 



THE INDIANS 421 

through the passes of the Appalachians and rearing their 
log cabins in the Kentucky and Tennessee wilderness, 
carried the frontier westward (§110)*. Their descendants 
moved on into Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois. They were 
flanked on the north by men of New England all drawn 
on by free land and free life. Roads and barbed wire 
fences, grain elevators, fruit and grain farms, and flourish- 
ing cities took the place of the frontier. The trapper 
and fur trader, the lonely gold hunter, the cowboy and 
the cattle king, gave place to the farmer and the factory 
hand. The frontier had passed like a dream in the night. 
America had entered upon a new era. 

671. The democratic influence of the frontier. Of all 
the influences bearing upon America the frontier made 
the deepest and most lasting impression. On the fron- 
tier one man was as good as another. Family name 
counted for nothing. Men got what they earned and 
intended to keep it. The frontiersmen were democratic, 
fearless, and impatient of restraint. Compelled to meet 
dangers and privations by discovering new methods of 
working and living, they became progressive. Not 
bound down by tradition, they were not afraid to try 
new ways. Thus the West has led the country in all 
sorts of political, social, and economic reforms. The 
frontier has gone, but its spirit is still leading America 
to a bigger and better life for all her citizens. 

THE INDIANS 

672. The old way. Until 1875 the white man and 
the Indian struggled for possession of the land. The 
white man wanted it for farms, the Indian for hunting 
grounds. Many treaties were made under which the 
Indian signed away his right to the land, accepting 



42 2 GROWTH OF THE NATION 

money and goods in its place. But theb Indian did not 
understand that the sale meant he must go away from 
the land forever and not hunt nor fish upon it (§33). 
Many times, too, the Indians said their chiefs who 
signed the treaties had no right to sell the lands of the 
tribe. So they tried to hold on, and Indian wars, one 
after another, desolated the frontier. 

In 1830 Congress tried to get the eastern Indians to 
move to the Indian Territory. They did not go will- 
ingly, but by 1850 most of them had been moved beyond 
the Mississippi. 

This removal caused much suffering and hard feeling. 
In 1836 the government bought from the Pottawatto- 
mies, the land lying in northwestern Indiana. When the 
time came to move, the Indians refused to leave and 
soldiers were called in. Eight hundred men, women, 
and children on foot started on the long trail to the 
West. The weather was hot, and the change of water 
and food brought on sickness. Across Illinois and 
Missouri the sad procession moved. When at last they 
reached their new home in Kansas, the journey had 
cost more than one hundred and fifty lives. 

West of the Mississippi it was the same way. During 
the sixties and seventies fierce wars with the Sioux, 
Cheyennes, and other powerful tribes resulted in the 
defeat of the Indians. 

673. Battle of the Little Big Horn. One of the fiercest 
battles with the western Indians took place in 1876 on 
the Little Big Horn River in southern Montana. Here 
the Sioux tribe under one of its chiefs. Sitting Bull, fought 
a desperate battle with General Custer and his little army 
of 260 men. Custer and all of his men were killed, but 
the Indians were soon driven back to their own territory. -^^ 



THE INDIANS 



423 



A monument marks the spot where Custer fell. As a 
result of these wars the Indians were gathered into 
reservations or were sent to the Indian Territory. 




GENER.\L CUSTER'S LAST FIGHT 



674. The reservation system. The government gave 
food and clothing to the Indians who stayed within the 
bounds of the reservation. It kept up schools and tried 
to keep traders from selling the Indians firearms and 
whisky. Indeed, it treated the Indians just as if they were 
children who must be fed and clothed but must be kept 
shut up for fear they would get into mischief. This 
idle, useless, dependent life was very bad for them and 
made trouble for the government and for the Indians. 

One difficulty with the reservation plan was that when 
the Indians had settled down in a certain place it was only 
a few years until they were asked or ordered to move 
again. Tecumseh in 18 10 complained of this to General 
Harrison, saying, "You are continually driving the Red 
people; at last you will drive them into the great lake 
where they can't either stand or work." 



424 GROWTH OF THE NATION 

675. The new way. In 1887 Congress passed the 
Dawes Act. Under it the Indian may become a citizen 
with the right to vote and hold office. At the same 
time he has a chance to own land and to run a farm. 
If he stays quietly on his farm for a few years, earning 
his living and caring for his family, the land becomes his. 

The new way is successful. The Indian gets along 
much better than he did under the old plan of reserva- 
tions. Many of them now have their own farms and 
cattle ranches; some have become rich. 

676. Recent conditions. The Indian population is now 
about 325,000. It does not seem to be dying out. On 
the contrary it is slowly gaining in numbers. There are 
still 113 reservations scattered over the country. Arizona 
has the largest area of reservation land, almost 30,000 
square miles, and Oklahoma the largest Indian population, 
nearly 120,000. All the Oklahoma Indians now have 
their own land and have given up tribal organization. 

GROWTH IN EDUCATION 

Religion, morality, and knowledge, being necessary to good 
government and the happiness of mankind, schools and the means 
of education shall forever be encouraged. — Ordinance of 1787. 

(i*j*j. Progress to 1880. Nothing seems to have been 
clearer to the founders of our republic than that free, 
general education was a matter of the greatest impor- 
tance. Thinking people understand that to keep up a 
democratic government the people must be able to form 
their own opinions. Hence public schools were founded 
and real progress was made. 

The Civil War interfered with this progress. In the 
South it destroyed so much property that it was hard 
to raise enough money to educate all the children. The 



fctw^ j' iLJims^ 




GROWTH IN EDUCATION 425 

people of this region have been vStrugghng with this 
problem ever since, but are now making progress. 

678. Growth since 1880. In kindergarten, grades, 
high school, and college there has been great growth in 
the last forty years. Many new kinds of educational 
work, barely thought of in 1880, have become common 
vsince that time. Among these are included night schools, 
vocational training, citizenship classes, community cen- 
ters and extension work, medical inspection, compulsory 
attendance, and vacation schools. 

679. The kmdergarten. The kindergarten is a school 
for children too young to go to the grade school. The 
first school of this kind in the United States was founded 
in 1855. By 1880 the movement was well started. Now 
there are kindergartens connected with the public schools 
all over the country. -^^ 

680. The grades. The elementary school means much 
to the nation because it is the place where young 
America, for the most part, gets its training. Out of 
one hundred children starting school in the first grade, 
on an average fifty have dropped out at the end of 
the sixth grade. Sixteen more drop out during the 
seventh and eighth grades. This means that about two- 
thirds of the children who start in school never attend 
the high school. 

In 1880 there were 9,500,000 children in the elementary 
schools; by 1916 this number had risen to 20,500,000. 
It costs about $42 a year per pupil to run the schools. 
In the schools of earlier days little was taught except 
reading, writing, spelling, arithmetic, grammar, geog- 
raphy, and United States history (§375). Nov/ there are 
added nature study, drawing, music, cooking, sewing, 
physical training, and manual training. 



426 GROWTH OF THE NATION 

68i. The high school. In 1880 there were about 2,500 
free public high schools in the country; in 191 5 the 
number had increased to 12,000. This great develop- 
ment has taken place in all parts of the country, especially 
in the South and West. Years ago some people objected 
to paying taxes to keep up the high school, but there is 
much less objection now. 

Most people used to think the high schools existed 
mainly to get boys and girls ready for college. Now 
high schools have come to be the "people's college." 
Many of the great city high schools now have better 
buildings, better equipment, and better teachers than 
the old-time colleges had.-^'* 

682. Changes. There have been two great changes in 
high schools since 1880. Country children once had no 
chance for high school training unless they went to the 
city. Now in many states they are coming to have as 
good a chance right at home as the city child has. In a 
growing number of states there are fine township or 
community high schools. Children whose homes are not 
in walking distance are taken to and from school in 




^ 






„;,■,! m'.nji'.', ."i^QiiJ, 'i|!l1 






A MODERN HIGH SCHOOL 



wagons or cars. Some of these consolidated schools also 
care for the children in the grades. The old one-room 



GROWTH IN EDUCATION 



427 




A MODERN RURAL SCHOOL 



country school is disappearing" and its place is being taken 
by the modern, well-equipped consolidated school. The 
second change is 



that in the cities 
different kinds of 
high schools are 
appearing. The 
old-time high 
school offered two 
or three courses ; 
now there are gen- 
eral culture high 
schools, manual 
training high 
schools, commer- 
cial high schools, 
and agricultural and industrial high schools. -•^■^ 

683. Normal schools and agricultural colleges. 
ago it was thought that anyone who had completed the 
work of the eight grades knew enough to teach school. 
Gradually people got the idea that a good teacher must 
at least be a graduate of a high school and should have 
some special training for teaching. Thus arose the nor- 
mal school for the special preparation of teachers. These 
schools have increased rapidly in number. In igi6 there 
were 278 of them with about 173,000 students.-''' 

The Morrill Act of 1862 granted 30,000 acres of the 
public land to each state for each senator and representa- 
tive it had in Congress. The proceeds of the sale of 
these lands were to be used to support "agricultural and 
mechanical" colleges. Every state in the Union now has 
a state university or college of agriculture resting upon this 
grant. They give courses in agriculture, engineering, law, 



Lonj 



428 



GROWTH OF THE NATION 



teaching, business, and other subjects. Any young person 
in the country can find in his own state one of these 
institutions eager to help him in getting a higher edu- 
cation. ^^^ 

Besides the state universities there are many colleges 
and universities founded by churches and private citi- 
zens (§379). All of them have done a great work in 
bringing to the boys and girls of America the chance for 
college training. -^^ 

684. Vocational training. People used to think there 
was time enough to settle the question of a boy's occu- 
pation after he completed the high school course. The 
result was that the high school course of study did 
nothing to train him for any certain line of work.^^^ 
About 1880 people began to change their minds about 




AT WORK IN A TECHNICAL HIGH SCHOOL LABORATORY 

this question. They had discovered that only about 
twelve out of everv hundred children that entered the 



GROWTH IN EDUCATION 429 

first grade ever finished high school. The others stopped 
in order to go to work. They thought young people 
should be fitted in the schools to earn a living whether 
they go on through high school or not. In this way 
"practical" or "vocational" studies came into the 
schools. 

First came the founding of agricultural high schools by 
several states. In these schools stock judging, farm 
accounts, seed testing, soils, marketing, and similar sub- 
jects were taught. Then the cities began to found trade 
schools where the boys were taught such kinds of work 
as printing, electrical work, drafting, and plumbing. In 
a little while, too, there were schools in which the girls 
could learn milKnery, dressmaking, cooking, and sales- 
manship. This is a great change from the old type of 
education, but it keeps many boys and girls in school. 
It will also help them to earn a good living. 

Congress showed its interest in this kind of work by 
passing the Smith-Hughes Bill in 191 7. By this act the 
Federal government agrees to pay several million dollars 
a year to help the states carry on schools in agriculture, 
home economics, and in the trades. Over two thousand 
schools received this help in 191 9. 

685. Compulsory school attendance. In 1852 Massa- 
chusetts passed the first law compelhng parents to send 
their children to school. Since that time all of the states 
have passed such laws. The age limit varies: in most 
of the states the children must be in school a part, or 
all, of the school year until they are fourteen years old; 
in other states the age Hmit for school attendance is 
sixteen years. 

686. Schools for adults. One-fourth of the people in 
Chicago, Detroit, Buffalo, and Pittsburgh cannot speak 



430 GROWTH OF THE NATION 

the English language. They cannot read the newspapers, 
and it is hard for them to gather true information about 
American life and purposes. They will become good 
Americans if they are given a chance to learn the lan- 
guage of the country. Thoughtful Americans understand 
this need, and now in all the large cities there are night 
schools where the immigrant is taught to use the English 
language. He is taught also the history of the United 
States, what it means to vote, and what the duties and 
privileges of citizenship are. This work is practical 
Americanization. 

687. The school a community center. The school is 
the natural center for all community interests. All our 
citizens, of every race, color, condition, and creed, have 
a like interest in the school. In the public schools all 
children have an equal opportunity. 

The rural schools were closed about half of the year. 
About the year 1900 people began to use the school 
buildings for community meetings. One of our troubles 
in the past was that we did not get together enough* and 
talk things over. Now people of a neighborhood gather 
in the schoolhouse and have lectures, debates, parties, 
banquets, and meetings to discuss public questions. 
Many a rural school now has a good library and a pleasant 
reading room open to the public. To the school farmers 
come to hold their seed-testing and stock-judging con- 
tests. This does much to take away the loneliness of the 
farmer's life. It also shows the country boys and girls 
that people can have good times in the country as well as 
in the city. City people, too, are taking hold of the 
community center movement. In 191 6 there were com- 
munity centers in 518 cities, and the movement continues 
to spread rapidly. 



GROWTH OF EDUCATION 431 

688. Medical inspection. Many a boy who does poor 
work in school is thought by the teacher to be lazy or 
stupid. But often when the boy is examined, some 
physical defect of the eye, ear, nose, throat, or teeth is 
found. If he has the attention of a physician, the boy 
will become as alert and bright as any of his schoolmates. 
Should he not get this help, he will probably drop out of 
school and will be held back all his life. Medical inspec- 
tion of school children, begun in Europe years ago, was 




THE HOME ECONOMICS BUILDING, GEORGE PEABODY COLLEGE FOR TEACHERS, 
NASHVILLE, TENNESSEE 



slow in getting started in the United States. In 1906 
Massachusetts passed the first act requiring such inspec- 
tion. By 191 1 twenty states had followed her example. 
Splendid results have been secured. 

689. Woman and higher education. One of the great 
educational movements of the last fifty years is the admis- 
sion of women to colleges and universities. Before that 
time the "female seminaries" were thought good enough 
for women. Now, practically all higher institutions of 
learning admit them. In addition there are many colleges 
of high standing for women. Many medical colleges and 
law schools have opened their doors to women. 



432 GROWTH OF THE NATION 

GROWTH OF READING 

690. Literature. Literature has had a great develop- 
ment since the Civil War. Samuel L. Clemens, "Mark 
Twain," first of a group of western writers, gave the world 
two of the greatest boys' books ever written, Huckleberry 
Finn and Tom Sawyer.^'^'^ He also made a reputation 
as a humorist in his Innocents Abroad. 

Bret Harte was another western writer, and Joaquin 
Miller, also of the West, gave America a splendid vision 
of herself in his poem "Columbus." The South, too, 
made many fine contributions to American literature. 
George W. Cable wrote stories like The Grandissimes 
and Bonaventure about Louisiana people, while Charles 
Egbert Craddock pictured the life of the southern moun- 
taineers. Thomas Nelson Page with Red Rock belongs 
to this group. Three great southern poets were Sidney 
Lanier, Paul Hamilton Hayne, and Irwin Russell. 

The Middle West found a voice in the poems of James 
Whitcomb Riley and Eugene Field. Riley, known as the 
"Hoosier poet," wrote many poems in "Hoosier dialect," 
but he also has many beautiful compositions in pure 
English. -^^ His poems picture scenes of simple life 
with humor. His best loved poems are in the volumes, 
Rhymes of Childhood, Out to Old Aunt Mary's, The Rag- 
gedy Man, and The Little Orphant Annie Book. Field 
also was a poet of childhood and a humorist. Among 
his best known works are A Little Book of Western Verse, 
With Trumpet and Drum, and Poems of Childhood. 

Edward Eggleston wrote three famous stories of early 
days in the Middle West: The Hoosier School Boy, 
The Hoosier School Master, and The Circuit Rider.-'^- 

New England life in this period is pictured by Sarah 
Orne Jewett, Mary E. Wilkins Freeman, and Alice Brown. 



GROWTH OF READING 



433 




A MODERN PRINTING PRESS 



But there are some writers whose work is not about any 
special part of the country. They wrote, instead, for all 
America. Among 
them was the poet 
Walt Whitman, 
and the short 
story -writers 
Hamlin Gar- 
land,2« Frank R. 
Stockton, Richard 
Harding Davis, -^' and O. Henry. -•*^ Some novelists of 
this group were Henry James, William Dean Howells, 
Owen Wister, Meredith Nicholson, Jack London, Booth 
Tarkington, Gene Stratton Porter, and Winston Churchill. 

691. Newspapers and periodicals. Since 1880 there 
has been a great increase in the reading habit on the 
part of the general public. This increase has expressed 
itself in a demand for more magazines and newspapers, 
as well as for more books. Outside of the schools, the 
newspapers and magazines are, without doubt, the greatest 
educational force in America. The number of news- 
pajDers and periodicals in 1 9 1 8 was two and one-half times 
what it was in 1880. Some of the great newspapers print 
over 200,000 copies a day, while one popular magazine 
prints over 2,000,000 copies a week. 

692. Books and libraries. The great ironmaster, 
Andrew Carnegie,-^*' believed that every city and town 
should have its free public library. He gave almost 
$45,000,000 for this purpose. He did not give all the 
money needed for the buildings, but required the city 
where a library was to be built to pay part of the cost. 
As a result Mr. Carnegie is responsible for 1,539 ^^e 
libraries for the use of the general public. In addition 



434 GROWTH OF THE NATION 

to this Mr. Carnegie gave over $18,000,000 to colleges 
for their libraries. This was a princely gift to the 
American people. 

Magazines that give a review of current events with an 
intelligent discussion of them are important. In many 
schools it is the custom to use these magazines for class 
work. Prominent among them are the Literary Digest, 
the Review of Reviews, the World's Work, the Outlook, 
and Current Events. 

SUGGESTED READINGS 1 

References for teachers: Pattee, History of American Likrature 
since iSyo; Bassett, Short History, 711, 712; Eastman, The Indian of 
Today; Cubberley, Public Education in the United States; Hart, Con- 
temporaries, IV, nos. 204, 205; Schafer, History of the Pacific North- 
west; Paxson, The Last Atnericaji Frontier; Sparks, National Develop- 
ment; Sweet, History of Latin America. 1 

References for pupils: Paine, The Boy's Life of Mark Twain; 
Sabin, Building the Pacific Railway; Dellenbaugh, Breaking the Wilder- 
ness; Muir, Our National Parks; Hough, The Story of the Coivboy; 
Garland, Boy Life on the Prairie; Hart, Source Book, no. 138; Parrish, 
The Great Plains. 

Fiction: Eaton, Boy Scouts in Glacier Park; Tomlinson, Scouting 
with Kit Carson; Schulz, With the Indians in the Rockies; Grinnell, 
Blackfcet Indian Stories; Allen, The Mettle of the Pasture; Fox, Christ- 
mas Eve on Lonesome; London, The House of Pride; Harris, On the 
Plantation. - 

PROBLEMS AND PROJECTS 

I . Imagine you have been visiting friends in the Red River Valley 
in North Dakota. Write an account of the big wheat farms to your 
friends at home. 2. Topic, "Salmon fishing on the Columbia." 

3. Imagine yourself an old Indian telling your grandchildren the story 
of the struggle between the white man and the Indian for the land. 

4. Topic, "Why I Uke my school." 5. Make out programs for three 
community meetings at your school this winter. 



CHAPTER XXVII 
GROWTH IN TRADE AND INDUvSTRY 

GROWTH OF FOREIGN TRADE 

J* 

693. Foreign trade. Many products of our farms and 
factories go to other countries to help feed and clothe 
their people. This volume of outflowing goods is our 
exports, but we bring into this country great quantities 
of rubber, coffee, wool, sugar, pulp wood, and other 
products. These are our imports. 

Imports and exports together make up our foreign 
trade. World trade rests upon the fact that the United 
States can produce some kinds of goods more cheaply 
than other countries can and that in producing some 
goods other countries have the advantage over us. vSo 
each country, after using what it wants of its products, 
trades the rest to other countries. 

694. Agricultural exports. The United States has 
always had a big advantage in farm products. This is 
due to our rich soil, our favorable climate, and our wide 
use of farm machinery. We have been exporting farm 
products ever since the founding of our country. In 
1920 we sent out of the country two and one-half times 
as much as in 1880. Cotton, meat, wheat, and flour 
were valued in the order named. -^" The people of 
Europe are not accustomed to using corn meal, so we 
feed the corn to our cattle and hogs and export it in the 
form of meat. 

695. The export of manufactures. While our exports 
of farm products have greatly increased since 1880, 



4^6 



GROWTH IN TRADE AND INDUSTRY 



manufactures have left them far behind. The export of 
manufactured goods has increased more than thirty times 
the amount in 1880 and is now six times greater than 
our agricultural products exported. ^"''^ 

In far-away Siberia locomotives made in Philadelphia 
are drawing trains of American-made cars over steel rails 
made in Pittsburgh. Chinese shopkeepers Hght their 






(nrm 




FREIGHT AT THE DOCKS READY FOR SHIPMENT TO EUROPE 

Stores with the product of the Standard Oil Company, 
and Australian sheep raisers use American barbed wire 
fences between their pastures. Self-binders from Chicago 
gather the wheat crop in Hungary, and American-made 
talking machines and moving pictures entertain the boys 
and girls of Siam. The Brazilian lights his streets with 
electric current made by machinery from Schenectady, 
and a bridge made in Chicago and shipped in parts spans 
the straits between India and Ceylon. American boots 
and shoes, rubber tires, and automobiles are found in 
every land. The American manufacturer uses the whole 
world for his market. 



GROWTH OF FOREIGN' TRADE 437 

696. Our customers. Europe has always been our 
best customer. This is natural because highly developed 
countries having industries of their own are able to call 
for the products of all the world and get them. They have 
something to give in exchange. England is our largest 
buyer, with Canada next. Then in order come France, 
Cuba, Japan, Italy, Germany, and Belgium (1920). 

697. Imports. No nation can export goods to any great 
extent unless it also imports goods. This is because the 
nations receiving goods cannot pay for them in money 
alone. That would soon strip them of gold. They pay 
for goods with other goods of their ow^n production. 

In 1920 the imports of the United States were seven 
times greater than in 1880. The principal articles 
brought in are sugar, chemicals, rubber, coffee, silk, flax, 
hemp, and jute. These goods come from the countries 
to which we export. It is important to know that they do 
not appear in the same order — Cuba, Canada, England, 
Japan, Brazil, Argentine, China, and France. 

698. Balance of trade. Since 1880 the value of 
United States exports has always been greater than that 
of its imports. When we are selling more than we are 
buying we are said to have a "favorable balance " of trade. 

699. Trade with South America. With its large popu- 
lation and big cities, South America is a great market for 
all kinds of manufactured goods. But until recently the 
United States has had only a small part of this trade. 
England and Germany years ago got into this market and 
taught the people to use their goods. ^^^ The United 
States, on the other hand, never made any special effort 
to get into the South American market. There were no 
branches of American banks there, and American business 
firms had few men there who spoke Spanish. 



438 GROWTH IN TRADE AND INDUSTRY 

700. Reciprocity. About 18S0 America began to show 
more interest in South America. We have seen how 
Secretary Blaine in 1889 brought about a meeting of Pan- 
American delegates in Wasliington. They recommended 
reciprocity treaties between the different countries (§603). 
As a result reciprocity was put in the McKinley Tariff 
Law of 1890 (§538). The substance of it was that the 
United States would admit free of duty, sugar, molasses, 
coffee, and hides if the South American states would 
receive our farm machinery, engines, shoes, and other 
goods on favorable terms. This was the real basis of the 
trade that has developed since that time. 

701. Panama Canal trade. Among other things the 
building of the Panama Canal was intended to help trade 
between the United States and South America. One can 
see what a big change it makes when he looks at the map 
(p. 368). 

702. The new attitude. Our business men are awake 
to the fact that there is a big market for their goods in 
South America and are training young men to go there 
as their agents. The bankers are opening branch banks 
in all the large cities, and the South Americans are being 
taught to use our products. Many meetings have been 
held to develop friendly feelings, and groups of business 
men have visited back and forth. 

The results are very encouraging. Our exports to 
South America have grown to twenty-one times what 
they were in 1880. Thi§ is a fine gain. Our exports to 
Europe are three times what they were in 1880. 

In imports, too, we have done well. They are now 
seventeen times as great as they were at the beginning of 
this period. The five countries leading in business with 
the United States are in order Argentine, Brazil, Colombia, 



GROWTH OF FOREIGN TRADE 



439 



Chile, and Peru. It is elear that the South American 
trade will be an increasing factor in our industrial life. 
703. Merchant marine. IVIost of our commerce wa^ 
carried in American vessels until the Civil War. After 
that our merchant marine went down rapidly and other 
nations got our sea trade.--'" Americans could make more 
by putting their money in railroads, farms, and factories. 
So our merchant ships almost disappeared from the sea, 
and Holland, England, Norway, and Germany carried 
our products and collected big freight bills. By 1907 only 
seven ships out of one hundred carrying our exports flew 
the American flag. Men wanting to start steamship lines 
asked for a subsidy; that is, they asked Congress to help 
them with money as it had helped the western railroads 
with land (§528). Others thought it best to let foreigners 
carry our freight if they could do it cheaper than we could. 




A MODERN OCEAN LINER 



The World War made a big change in shipping. '-■■' The 
ships of other nations were largely driven from the seas, 
and we began to buy and build ships as fast as we could. 
In 1918 our tonnage was forty times as great as in i9r2. 



440 



GROWTH IN TRADE AND INDUSTRY 



GROWTH OF INDUSTRY 

704. Our national wealth. With about 6 per cent of 
the land surface of the globe and about 6 per cent of its 
population, the United States each year produces one- 
third of all the world's wealth. We have enough national 
wealth to give every man, woman, and child over $2,000, 
if it were evenly divided. In 1880 our national wealth 
was hardly one-fifth of what it is now. Its growth has 
been astonishing. It has grown even faster than the 
population. How has this growth been brought about? 



AGRICULTURE 

705. Reasons for growth. There are several reasons 
for the great growth in farming in the last forty years. 
Some of them are : the increase in the area of farm land 
and the number of farms; the development and greater 
use of farm machinery and of scientific methods of farming ; 
the development of hard roads and railroads; the higher 
standard of living and of intelligence among farmers. 

706. Increase in farm lands. The United States census 
tells us there were 4,000,000 farms in the United States 

in 1880. In 1918 
the number had 
increased to about 
6,700,000. We have 
seen (§661) how the 
Homestead Act 
opened the West to 
settlement, how the 
building of the rail- 
roads brought set- 
tlers into that region (§§66i-66g) and how irrigation 
added to the acreage of farm lands (§565). 




THE STEAM PLOW AT WORK ON A PRAIRIE FARM 



AGRICULTURE 44 1 

707. Science and farming. In the great state uni- 
versities and agricultural colleges the laboratories are filled 
with scientists who are studying questions of farm work. 
vSome of them are studying diseases of plants and how to 
get rid of them. It was in 1885 that a scientist gave the 
Bordeaux mixture to the world. By this mixture many 
bad diseases of plants may be kept down. In the labora- 
tory other scientists are studying diseases of animals and 
their prevention. Many of these diseases are due to 
germs. ■-^- The scientists find and study the germ, and 
then show the farmer how to fight it and thus keep his 
cattle, hogs, and sheep in good health. 

In other laboratories scientists study soils. They learn 
what kind of fertilizers the soil needs to make it produce 
more. They tell the farmer how to use these fertilizers. 
They tell him also how to make worn-out soil productive 
again. Other scientists study insect pests and how to 
deal with them. They have told the farmer how to fight 
the potato bug and the codling moth that ruins so many 
apples. They have studied the Hessian' fly that killed 
half the wheat crop, and have found out that if the 
farmer delays planting until the flies that lay the eggs 
are gone, he will have no trouble. The cotton boll 
weevil that threatened the entire cotton crop a few years 
ago has had to surrender to the scientist. The grain farmer, 
the cattle and hog ._^,^_^-^ ^.-~.-^- ^^ ^^^r-j>,'^~ -^ ^ ^ 
raiser, the fruit («^ ; "^^ v'S^ 'i^'^j^' 

grower, the cotton , .-I^^A^'Cfa RCife^^ 
planter, and the •;, #*«4--lt*.f»^»;%\'\ , - 

market gardener ^S^?-- I^i^^' '^ 

are ail uepenclent ^ klio'-lnl ir\l[or \tt\chld to mowing mxchims 
upon the work of the .scientist. Our fuod ^;upply could 
hardly be kept up without his help. 



44: 



GROWTH IN TRADE AND INDUSTRY 



708. Farm machinery. Farm machinery saves human 
labor. A modern farm has about twice as much machin- 
ery on it as it had in 1880. With its gang plows, its 
gasoline tractors, its corn planters, and its riding culti- 
vators, its harvesters and motor trucks, it is a good deal 
like a factory. The farmer of today must know as much 
about machines as he does about plants and animals. 
These modern machines lessen the cost of production, 
and greatly increase the quantity of the crops raised. -s'' 




i»i.rfl~>u^f-«I.Tit 






A STEAM HARVESTER AND THRESHER 



709. Transportation. The farmer raises products to 
sell in the markets of the world, but if he has no means 
of carrying them to market he might as well go out of 
business. Modern farming and means of transporta- 
tion go together. Improvement of country roads -and 
extension of railroad lines have been the two main ways 
of meeting the transportation problem. In 1880 there 
were 93,000 miles of railroad in the country. In 19 18 
there were over 264,000 miles. There has been a wonder- 
ful improvement in country roads in the last few years. 
It now costs on the average a bit over 14 cents per bushel 
for the western farmer to get his wheat to the primary 
markets — Chicago, Minneapolis, Kansas City. If his 
wheat is going abroad, it will cost about 30 cents 



AGRICULTURE 



443 




AN OLD-TIME ^lL'D ROAD IN EARLY SPRING 



per bushel to 

send it to 

Liverpool. By 

the extension >^^J 

of railroads ^ 

and the cheap- 
ening of ocean 

freight the 

whole world 

has become 

the market of 

the American 

farmer. * 

The extension of railroads improves the city milk 

supply. Farmers living 300 miles from cities like New 

York now ship milk daily by special train to the city. 

In 1880 it was a rare thing for milk to be sent even 

100 miles. Thus city dwellers get good fresh milk every 

day, and farmers who live hundreds of miles from the 

city can have successful dairy farms. 

One of the latest developments is the rural truck line. 

In many parts of the country gasoline trucks stop at the 

farmer's gate 
daily, and 
take on loads 
of butter, 
eggs, fruit, 
and poultry 
for the city.-^-* 
This is a great 
convenience 
to the farmer 
Tiir s\Mr Ro\n impromd "*^ " '"~^ and rclicves 




444 



GROWTH IN TRADE AXD INDUSTRY 



the railroads of part of their work. Good railroad and 
good truck service raises the value of farm lands. 

710. Storage. In some states the wheat crop is so big 
that the roads cannot carry it all to market at once. 
Hence it must be stored. The farmer cannot do this, 
so he hauls the wheat to the nearest town and sells it to 
the people who run the storage elevators. -■'^•^ In many 




A MODERN GRAIN ELEVATOR 



instances the farmer feels that he does not get enough 
money for his crop, but he must sell it at the elevator 
price or lose it. In some places the farmers have com- 
bined and built elevators of their own. In this way 
they can hold their wheat until they are ready to sell it. 
North Dakota has gone into the business of running 
storage elevators. 

711. Higher standards. The farmer's life is not what 
it used to be (§§324, 389). In addition to being a farmer, 
he is now a business man. He sells his goods in the mar- 
kets of the world. He thus meets competition. He must 
have his daily newspaper and telephone so he can keep 
track of prices and do business quickly. He must know 
about animal and plant diseases and about soils. He 



AGRICULTURE 445 

must understand machinery. It is to his interest to keep 
informed on public questions such as the tariff and 
trusts. He must be on good terms with the banker so 
he can borrow money when he wants it. He sees the 
relation between good schools and good farming and for 
this reason he wants good schools for his children. All 
this means that he is much more intelligent and alert 
than was the farmer of 1880. 

The farmer has learned to live much more comfortably 
than he did in 1880. He eats better food, lives in a better 
house, rides in an automobile, and has his farm work done 
largely by machinery. He will work and plan harder than 
ever, use more machinery, and make more use of science 
in the future so that he can increase production and thus 
add to his income. In this way the rising standard of 
living constantly leads to better farming. 

712. Farm renters. The picture of farming in the 
United States from 1880 to the present time is very 
encouraging, but there is another side that is not so 
pleasant. It has to do with farm renting. 

In 1880 one-fourth of the farms were occupied by farm 
tenants or renters. By 19 10 the number had risen to 
almost two-fifths, and it has greatly increased since then. 
There are several reasons for this. It takes more money 
now than formerly to own and run a farm. In the North 
Central states it is not uncommon for farm lands to cost 
as much as $300 an acre. This means that an ordinary 
farm of 120 acres is worth about $36,000, a sum so large 
that only well-to-do people can buy land and become 
farmers. 

Many students of the subject think this habit of rent- 
ing farms is bad for the country. They say that the 
renter does not keep as much live stock as the owner 



446 GROWTH IN TRADE AND INDUSTRY 

did and lets the soil run down. Expecting to move to 
some other farm after while, the renter fails to keep up 
the improvements. In this way some of the best farms 
in the country are losing their fertility, and a permanent 
tenant class is appearing. 

The highest percentage of farm lands held by tenants 
is in the North Central states — Indiana, Ilhnois, and 
Iowa. 

713. Land banks. Farmers have long complained of 
the high rates of interest they have been compelled to 
pay when they borrowed mone}^ at the banks. They 
also said they needed money for longer periods than the 
banks were wilHng to grant. This led to an agitation for 
the founding of some special kind of bank to meet the 
needs of the farmer. In 19 16 Congress met this demand 
by establishing Federal Farm Loan banks. There are 
twelve of them. When a farmer wants to borrow money, 
he forms an association of at least ten farmers who are 
willing to back one another. Through this association 
they are able to borrow money from the Land bank in 
their district. 

714. The Department of Agriculture. The Depart- 
ment of Agriculture at Washington supervises the farming 
industry of the country. The Department is organized in 
thirteen main divisions. The divisions that look after 
forests, public roads, markets, and animal industries are 
the most important. The Department maintains labora- 
tories for experimental purposes at the state agricultural 
colleges and universities. It also publishes bulletins 
upon all subjects of interest to the farmer and his 
family. About $28,000,000 per year is required to keep 
up the work of the Department of Agriculture, but it 
is worth many times that sum to the country. -^'^ 



MANUFACTURING 



447 



MANUFACTURING ' 

715. Manufacturing and agriculture. Agriculture was 
easily developed in the United States because soil, climate, 
and people were all favorable to it. It was naturally the 
first and main industry. Not until 1880 did manufac- 
turing pass agriculture in the value of its annual product. 
In spite of this gain the census tells us that more than 
one-third of our workers are engaged in agriculture while 
over one-fourth are engaged in manufacturing. From 
the standpoint, therefore, of the number of people 
engaged, agriculture is still our leading industry. 

716. Manufacturing. Many factors enter into manu- 
facturing: land, labor, capital, management, raw materials, 
transportation, and markets. We have become the 
greatest manufacturing nation in the world because we 
are specially favored in these respects: (i) We have a 
rich soil that yields great quantities of raw materials such 
as cotton, cereals, iron, and lumber. (2) The intelligence 











THE LARGEST LUMBER MILL IN THE WORLD 



and industry as well as the ingenuity of our laboring 
people are largely responsible for our marked success in 



448 



GROWTH IN TRADE AND INDUSTRY 



manufacturing. Our schools try to educate the child 
of the worker as well as of the rich man. (3) We have 
abundant capital. Our production of wealth is so great 
that a large surplus is left after we have used what we 









a-- I =*, 



l§!M!^la3ii|p'■v^^i^v;Jr• rvvis 



[fiillSli^iii^t 




A MODERN MILL FROM WHICH WHEAT AND FLOUR ARE SHIPPED TO ALL 
PARTS OF THE WORLD 

need. This surplus is used as capital in jjroducing more 
goods. It takes the form of machines, tools, buildings, 
and railroads. Thus our industries grow. (4) The 
management of a great manufacturing plant is a difficult 
task. Men should be trained for this work. Many 
universities have courses to train men to become super- 
intendents and managers. Some large establishments, 
such as the General Electric Company, maintain schools 
for training these young men to take places in their 
plants. (5) Our transportation system of railroads, 
country roads, and Great Lakes is the best in the world. 
We have about 40 per cent of all the railroad lines in the 
world, and thousands of miles of hard-surfaced road. 
(6) We have markets both at home and abroad. Our 



MANUFACTURING 



449 



population has high standards of hving and demands 
high-grade manufactured goods in many forms that the 
common people of Europe have never had. 

717. Science and manufacturing. We have seen how 
much modern science helps agriculture (§707). It is just 
as useful to manufacturing. Until 1880 manufacturers 
worked largely by "hit or miss" plans or by imitation, 
but that day is gone. Now the manufacturer uses the 
very best methods and the best machinery to be had. 
The universities and technical schools prepare young men 
to be managers and superintendents, but they do more 
than this. All the colleges operating under the Morrill 
Act, and many others, have big laboratories and experi- 
mental stations as well as shops. Here young men study 
materials of which manufactures are made. They learn 
the nature of the materials and how they can best be used. 




A SCIENTIFIC LABORATORY 



Manufacturers have found that it pays to keep trained 
scientists at work in their factories. They are trying to 
improve the product as well as to make it cost less. 
16 



450 



GROWTH IN TRADE AND INDUSTRY 



718. Direct production. In the pioneer stage of our 
life there was very little exchange of goods between com- 
munities at a distance from one another. The people of 
every neighborhood grew their crops and raised cattle, 
sheep, hogs, and poultry. They sheared the sheep, spun 
the yarn, wove and dyed the cloth, and made the gar- 
ments. They butchered the cattle, tanned the hides, 
and made their own shoes and harness. They cut down 
trees and made their carts, plows, and buildings. They 
salted their meats and baked their bread. They dug the 
clay and made the bricks they used. About the only 
articles not produced in the immediate neighborhood of 
the early settlers were iron, salt, gunpowder, coffee, and 
spices. These articles they got from peddlers. Not 
much money was to be seen. 

Now what was the reason for this state of affairs? 

It was the lack of roads 
and means of transporta- 
tion. Each group had to 
produce its own goods. 
There was no other way. 
To the people of today 
who live in comfort with 
the products of the whole 
world brought to their 
doors, the life of that time 
seems extremely hard and 
poor. It was the time of 
direct production. 

719. Indirect produc- 
tion. Let us look at pro- 
duction as it is carried on today. In the old days there 
were only a few distinct occupations, now there are 




THE OLD WAY OK MENDING SHOES 



MANUFACTURING 



451 




THE NEW WAY OF MENDING SHOES 



thousands. The work is so divided that each producer 
is expected to know only one trade and to work at that. 
The farmer raises 
crops and grows 
live stock; the 
carpenter builds 
houses; the 
printer sets type; 
the tailor makes 
clothes; the baker 
makes bread; the 
tanner prepares 
the hide. Each 
man follows his 
trade, develops skill and speed, and exchanges his pro- 
duct for those of the other producers. The result is that 
each one gets a larger c^uantity and a better quality of 
goods than he had when he tried to produce all these 
different articles for himself. The growth of this system 
of exchange depends chiefly upon two things: a con- 
stantly increasing supply of money and the growth of 
the means of transportation. 

When we compare the life of today with the life of the 
frontier in this matter of occupations, we see the enor- 
mous influence of good country roads, railroads, and 
waterways upon our industry. Today we live in an era 
of indirect production. Hardly anybody produces all the 
things he uses, but by producing for others he gets the 
things he wants. 

720. Division of labor. Indirect production or division 
of labor is carried far in the modern factory. Each 
workman has just one thing to do. For instance, in a 
shoe factory there are men who do nothing but run 



452 . GROWTH IN TRADE AND INDUSTRY 

stitching machines, but there are half a dozen kinds of 
stitching to be done, so there are half a dozen stitchers, 
each one running his own peculiar kind of machine. 
Some run buttonhole machines, others punch holes for 
eyelets, and still others run machines that put in hooks. 
In all there are over one hundred different operations on 
a shoe, each performed by a different worker. Another 
illustration of the division of labor is a butcher's gang 
in a meat-packing plant. It is estimated that thirty 
men are used in cutting up an animal, each man doing 
just one kind of work. 

721. Use of machines. Division of labor depends upon 
the use of machines. They have become the most impor- 
tant feature of modern industry. Indeed the present time 
is often called ' ' the era of machine production. ' ' Machines 
are used because they save human labor ; they give a bigger 
output of goods at a lower cost.-" 

Our leading position in manufacturing is due largely 
to the readiness of the manufacturers to use machines 
and division of labor in their factories. 

722. Geographical distribution. An industrial map of 
the United States shows that most of the factories are in 
the region east of the Mississippi and north of the Ohio 
and Potomac. The ten states leading in manufacturing 
rank as follows: New York, Pennsylvania, Illinois, Ohio, 
Massachusetts, New Jersey, Michigan, Indiana, California, 
and Wisconsin. Of these, each of the first six produces 
goods worth more than a billion dollars a year. New 
York's products run up to over three billion dollars a year. 

723. The Pacific coast. The Pacific coast is so far from 
the manufacturing centers of the East that the people 
on the coast have been compelled largely to develop 
their own factory system. They have made a good start, 



MANUFACTURING 



45:3 



California ranking ninth and Washington twenty-third 
among the states. 

724. The South. Tlie southern people, too, are begin- 
ning to build factories. Alabama has a large iron and 
steel business. It centers at Birmingham, where the 
essentials of iron manufacturing, coal, iron ore, and lime- 
stone, are found near together.'"^ North Carolina, South 




INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS IN THE SOUTH 



Carolina, and Georgia are now manufacturing a large 
part of their cotton product. They formerly sent it to 
New England to be turned into cloth. The value of 
cotton goods made in these states in 1910 was more than 
four times as great as in 1880. 

725. Further localization. It is interesting to note 
that factories engaged in the same kind of industry try 
to collect around some one city. This is often due to 
the fact that the industry got started there in the first 
place and that new factories afterward located there to 
get the use of trained labor. Thus Chicago is the great 



454 GROWTH IN TRADE AND INDUSTRY 

meat-packing center; New York City, the ready-made 
clothing center; Troy, New York, makes most of our 
collars and cuffs; Philadelphia leads in carpet making. 
Detroit is widely known in connection with automobile 
manufacturing. 

726. How the cities rank. The census says that in 
the value of their manufactured goods our big cities rank 
as follows: New York, Chicago, Philadelphia, Detroit, 
St. Louis, Cleveland, Boston, Buffalo, Pittsburgh, and 
Milwaukee. This counts only the production inside the 
city limits. If the count were extended to the district 
around each city, the ranking would probably be different. 

727. By-products. In some industries there is natu- 
rally a good deal of waste. Until 1880 little effort was 
made to find uses for this waste. Manufacturers looked 
upon it as a nuisance and burned it or dumped it in a 
nearby river. Since that time a great change has come 








m. ,^M^ 






about wScientists have 
bho\^n the manufacturers 



^^>;>*,''^«^^-^^,, ^•^^^"^'*-'4r.^\|\^^ how to make use of it in 

;rr3^-^l ^\ ^V^i?^ producmg goods that the 

--^ ^^^^j\^S^^> ^ " V.v,- ^orld wants or needs. 

AK OIL FIELD IN PENNSYLVANIA 

These wastes are now 
called "by-products." Big factories are much more able 
than small ones to take care of their by-products. 



MANUFACTURING 455 

A good illustration of the use of by-products is found 
in the cotton manufacturing industry. Formerly the 
seed, when it was separated from the fiber, was thrown 
away. Now the hull of the seed is used for ten different 
purposes, among which are stock feed, fertilizer, fuel, 
packing, and explosives. The meat of the seed, treated 
in various ways, yields no fewer than forty commercial 
products; among these are fertilizers, dyestuff, stock 
feed, cooking oil, and oils used in glycerin, candles, 
washing powder, soap, linoleum, and oilcloth. Another 
illustration of the use of by-products is in the refining 
of petroleum. That business was established to produce 
kerosene, but now some of the by-products are more 
important than the original main product. In this 
group are gasoline, benzine, naphtha, lubricating oils, 
paraffin, and asphalt. A few of the many other by- 
products of petroleum are coke, dye stufTs, tar, and 
vaseline. 

728. Slaughtering and meat packing. The slaughter- 
ing and meat packing industry centered at Cincinnati 
until about i860. In that year Chicago took first place, 
a position it still holds. Large plants are located at 
Kansas City, Omaha, and Oklahoma City. There is a 
minute division of labor in these plants, and by-products 
are carefully looked after. The refrigerator car is an 
important part of this business ;2^^ by means of it fresh 
meats are sent all over the country. 

729. Iron and steel. It would be a hopeless task to 
try to count all the uses of iron and steel. When we think 
of railroads, locomotives, stoves, machines of numberless 
kinds, saws, tools, hardware, barbed wire, structural iron 
and steel, firearms, and steamships, we see how true is 
the saying that this is the "iron age." This industry 



4S6 



GROWTH IN TRADE AND INDUSTRY 



centered at Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, in the early days 
because the coal, iron ore, and limestone were found 




SOUTHhl^N LilllUN MILL 



there. The Pittsburgh district has always retained first 
place. Other manufacturing districts that have been 
developed are the Birmingham, Alabama, district; the 
Ohio district, around Cleveland and Ybungstown; and 
the Chicago district, including South Chicago and Joliet, 
Illinois, and Gary, Indiana. A wonderful system of 
water and rail transportation brings the ore from the 
Lake Superior region to these manufacturing plants.-''''' 
Scientists have studied the nature of this metal until 
they have invented processes of producing different 
kinds of steel goods for different purposes. Between 
1899 and 1 9 14 the value of the product in this industry 
almost trebled, the number of workers employed rising 
from 745,000 to 1,061,000. 



THE AGE OF INVENTIONS 



457 



730. Cotton goods. New England was the early home 
of cotton manufactures (§277). It still leads all other 
sections. This is largely because of the labor situation. 
New England has a dependable labor supply, while the 
South is hampered in this respect. The negro does not 
make a good machine tender, and the supply of white 
labor in the South is limited. In spite of this handicap, 
the South has recently made good progress in establishing 
mills to manufacture the cotton she raises (§724). 



THE AGE OF INVENTIONS 

731. The inventor. The inventor, knowing of some 
need of society, tries to create a machine or device that 
will satisfy that need. Thomas Edison saw the need of 
a small electric light for use in offices and homes. He 
made hundreds of experiments and at last found that a 
little strip of bamboo was what he wanted. He turned 
this into charcoal, put it in a glass bulb from which the 
air was exhausted, and connected it with an electric 
battery. He had invented the incandescent lamp. 

Wilbur and 
Orville Wright 
of Dayton, Ohio, 
knew that the 
world needed 
flying machines. 
They worked 
patiently for 
years, solving 
problem after 
problem, until 
they realized that all they needed was a high-speed 
gasoline engine. They built such an engine, and on 




^_^if-^ 



THE WRIGHT AIRPLANE 



458 



GROWTH IN TRADE AND INDUSTRY 




THE PROGRESS OF ILLUMINATION 

FROM CANDLE TO LAMP, TO 

GAS, TO ELECTRICITY 



December 17, 1903, made a suc- 
cessful flight. The problem of 
flying had been solved. 

After the original invention is 
made, inventors use it as a start- 
ing point for many improvements. 
Thus Edison's lamp has been 
developed into the hydrogen- 
tungsten lamp, and the Wright 
brothers' crude machine has 
grown into the fast scouting 
machine that darts across the sky 
at the rate of 120 miles an hour. 
Some inventions are accidental 
discoveries, but most of them 
are the result of long, patient 
study.261 

732. Patents. Our government 
has always felt the importance 
of encouraging inventors. In 1 790 
our first patent law was passed. 
It was largely the work of Thomas 
Jefferson. He is called "the 
father of the patent system." 
By the patent law the govern- 
ment gives an inventor the sole 
right to manufacture and sell his 
invention for seventeen years. 
Of course he can sell this right 
if he wishes to. 

Americans lead all the world in 
invention. The year 191 8 saw 
almost forty thousand patents 



THE AGE OF INVENTIONS 459 

issued, while since 1790 they number over a milHon and 
a quarter. 

733. Inventions since the Civil War. It would be 
useless to try to mention even the most important inven- 
tions of the last fifty years, but we may name a few of 
them. In the field of electricity there is the electric 
Hght, the telephone, the electric street car and interurban, 
the wireless telephone and telegraph, and the X-ray. 
Electric power made at central stations is sent out over 
wires to factories to run machines, and electric locomo- 
tives pull long freight trains across the Rockies. Then 
we have the moving-picture machine, the fountain pen, 
the phonograph, the airbrake for railroad cars, the type- 
writer, the automobile, and the many wonderful machines 
now used on farm and in factory. Any student can think 
of many others. 

SUGGESTED READINGS 

References for teachers: Bassett, Short History, 478, 479, 665, 679, 
680, 685-689, 690, 748, 818-821; Bishop and Keller, Industry and 
Trade; ISogart, Economic History, chaps, xxviii, xxxii; Galpin, Rural 
Life; Day, A History of Commerce. 

References for pupils: Wheeler, Thomas Edison; Rocheleau, 
Geography of Commerce and Industry; Sanford, The Story of Agriculture 
in the United States; Weed, Farm Friends and Farm Foes; Gibson, The 
Romance of Modern Manufacturing; Hodge, Nature Study and Life; 
Darrow, The Boy's Own Book of Great Inventions; James, Readings in 
American History, no. 103. 

PROBLEMS AND PROJECTS 

I. Topic, "How we can build up trade with South America." 
2. Write an argument in favor of a ship subsidy. 3. Imagine yourself 
an apple grower in Kansas. Tell of your fight with the enemies of 
your apple trees. 4. Do you think a state should go into the elevator 
business? Topic, "State-owned elevators in North Dakota." 
5, Compare the conveniences of the farmer's life today with what it 
was fifty years ago. 6. Topic, ''What would the world be without 
steel?" 



CHAPTER XXVIII 
THE WORLD WAR 

AMERICA FINDS IT HARD TO BE NEUTRAL 

734. The explosion. The great majority of our people 
were looking forward to a long time of peace when the 
year 19 14 came in. Suddenly in the summer the greatest 
war in history broke out. The war was the greatest if we 
think of the number of nations fighting, the number of 
men killed, the amount of property destroyed, and the 
difficulty of settling its problems. 

735. The immediate causes. In June the Archduke 
Ferdinand, heir to the throne of Austria, was killed by a 
bomb. This was the spark that set the world on fire. 
Austria held Serbia responsible and immediately made 
demands on her to which no nation could submit. Ger- 
many, with the largest and best trained army in the 
world, backed up Austria. Russia stood behind Serbia; 
and France was ready to support Russia; Turkey and 
Bulgaria later came into the war on the side of Germany. 

Just before the crisis England appealed to Germany 
to stop her war preparations, but she refused. In a few 
days vast crowds of German soldiers were sweeping into 
Belgium, aiming at the heart of France — Paris. 

736. The effects of Germany's violation of Belgian 
neutrality. Belgium is a small state, and the great nations 
of Europe had taken a solemn pledge never to attack 
her. When Germany broke that pledge, Great Britain 
jumped to Belgium's defense, and to her own, too, 
for everybody saw that England would be the ne.xt victim 
if Germany succeeded in crushing France. 

460 



AMERICA TRIES TO BE xNEUTRAL 461 

The British army, not large, joined the French, and 
they drove the Germans back in the first Battle of the 
Marne. The British navy, the largest in the world, 
swept German commerce from the seas and bottled up 
the German navy in German waters. Only the crafty 
German submarines could slip out from their hiding 
places in the North Sea and menace the British and 
French fleets. 

In Eastern waters Japan joined the cause of the Allies, 
and a bit later Italy threw herself into the war against 
the Germans and Austrians. 

737. America declares herself neutral. The people of 
the United States were in a hard place. They had come 
from the very nations now fighting. How could they be 
neutral although President Wilson sent out his appeal to 
them to treat the warring countries in a friendly manner? 
How could they when they saw fathers, brothers, or other 
kindred falling in battle? The American government 
might be neutral, but the American people were not 
neutral in their feelings. 

738. Why America found it difficult to be neutral. 
The nations at war influenced their friends in America 
to make sentiment for them. 

Just as in the time of the Napoleonic Wars (§289), the 
trade of the world fell to America. American merchants 
seized the opportunity. They not only carried immense 
quantities of food and clothing to England and France, 
but turned their shops and foundries to making shot, 
shells, guns, cannon, airplanes, and other things used in 
war. None of these munitions went to Germany because 
the British fleet controlled the sea. 

Friends of Germany objected to our helping her ene- 
mies. But America had a right to trade with the nations 



462 THE WORLD WAR 

at war and could hardly give up this trade to please 
Germany. In fact, in a way it would have been a blow 
at the Allies to have done so. America was ready at any 
time to trade with Germany. She did trade with the 
"Deutschland," a German submarine which came to 
America. 

739. America protests to England and to Germany. 
In spite of the fact that we were sending millions in trade 
to England she searched our ships for letters, papers, and 
other things intended for Germany. The United States 
protested against England's acts. 

But the acts of Germany were worse than England's. 
Her submarines sank passenger ships without attempting 
to save the passengers. On May 7, 191 5, a German 
submarine shocked the world by sinking a giant English 
passenger ship, the "Lusitania," with many on board. ^^^ 
Over one hundred of the victims were American citizens. 
Within a short time a number of ships were sent to the 
bottom of the sea, some of them belonging to America. 

President Wilson warned Germany and demanded that 
she settle for the damage done. But Germany simply 
expressed "regret" that American lives had been lost. 
Another protest was immediately sent, declaring that the 
United States would be compelled to cease friendly rela- 
tions if the sinking of merchant ships was not stopped. 
Germany then promised to save American citizens in 
case she needed to sink passenger ships. 

740. Rise of a war sentiment in America. A year had 
passed since the sinking of the "Lusitania." A powerful 
sentiment in favor of war was growing up in America. 
The demand arose that the United States should increase 
its army and navy. But the government at Washington 
gave little heed to this cry for preparation for war.^i^^ 



AMERICA TRIES TO BE NEUTRAL 463 

741. Presidential campaign of 1916. When the Demo- 
crats of 19 16 faced their declaration in favor of one term 
for president, they were silent. They nominated Wilson 
for a second term. The Republicans and Progressives 
met in Chicago at the same time. Roosevelt was nomi- 
nated by the Progressives, and Hughes by the Republicans. 
Roosevelt withdrew in favor of Hughes, a former governor 
of New York where he had fought the bosses as Roosevelt 
had done. Hughes resigned from the Supreme Court to 
make the race. The Socialists and Prohibitionists both 
had candidates in the field. With the practical union of 
the Progressive and Republican parties again, the race 
became a close one. 

742. The issues and the result. The issues of the 
campaign were not many. The Republicans asserted 
that the Democrats had practically refused to protect 
American citizens in Mexico and on the high seas. They 
declared that Wilson had sacrificed the nation's honor to 
keep out of war. Hughes attacked the manner of putting 
through the claims of the railroad men for eight hours' 
work a day. The Democrats pointed to Wilson's record 
and took pride in the fact that "he kept us out of war." 
This was a favorite slogan of the Wilson men. 

The election itself was full of interest. Wilson won in 
191 2 with fewer votes of the people than Taft and Roose- 
velt. His vote in the Electoral College was larger than 
both of theirs. Wilson won in 1916 by over four hundred 
thousand votes of the people, the largest majority ever 
given a Democratic president. His majority of electoral 
votes was very small. 

743. America breaks with Germany. Early in the 
year 191 7 Germany sent the United States word that she 
proposed to break the power of Great Britain by a 



464 THE WORLD WAR 

wide-spread submarine attack. She offered to give the 
United States free passage for one passenger ship a week 
to one port in England. What was to become of our 
millions and millions of trade going to England? 

President Wilson immediately ordered the German 
ambassador to leave the country and recalled our ambas- 
sador from Germany. Germany was as good as her word : 
she sank over two hundred ships in February alone. 
Among these were American ships carrying American 
citizens. These acts were stirring up the war feeling. 

744. Germans plotting in America. From the very first 
the people of the United States suffered at the hands of 
German plotters. Germany had hired agents to stir up 
trouble among our laboring men and to blow up our fac- 
tories engaged in turning out munitions. Other agents 
were paid to put bombs secretly on vessels carrying war 
material to the Allies. Newspaper men received German 
gold for setting the cause of Germany before the American 
people in a good light. So dangerous had these agents 
become that President Wilson demanded the recall of 
the Austrian ambassador before the break with Germany. 

Early in January, 191 7, the German minister to Mexico 
got word from Germany to offer to restore the states 
of Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona to Mexico. All this 
was to come about providing Mexico would join Japan 
in a war on the United States. 

745. Germany long in preparing. For nearly forty 
years Germany had been getting ready for war. Every 
man in the country had been trained in arms, and just 
before the war broke out she had nine hundred thousand 
men in her active army. 

Besides, she had vast storehouses full of ammunition. 
She had manufactured thousands upon thousands of 



466 THE WORLD WAR 

machine guns and had more cannon than all of the 
Allies put together. Germany had prepared njany 
deadly things forbidden by the rules of war, poison 
gas, great balloons for hurling bombs on unprotected 
cities, and submarines for sinking unarmed passenger 
ships. 

But worse still Germany's military men had written 
books glorifying war. The German people had their 
minds poisoned by such books. 

746. The Kaiser a ruler by divine right. Why did 
Germany find it so hard to get on with us, a friendly 
nation ? Why did she fill this country with spies and paid 
agents? Simply because the Kaiser trusted no nation, no 
matter how friendly. 

The Kaiser claimed to rule Germany by divine right 
just as James I did England a long time ago (§6). 2'''' 
The Kaiser was an autocrat whose wish was law. It was 
dangerous in Germany to criticize him. But many 
thousands of the German people were opposed to him 
because he had so much power as the head of the 
army and navy. He influenced the schools to teach 
how much stronger and better the German race was 
than any other. Many Germans had come to believe 
that no nation could beat them in war. To make his 
power more secure the Kaiser's picture was placed in an 
important position in every public school ; the pupils were 
taught that their first duty was to obey him. 

747. The Kaiser dreams of world power. Before this 
Kaiser came to the throne, the German rulers began 
attacking the nations around them. They took a part of 
Denmark (1864); Austria was the next victim (1866); 
France fell into the trap and lost Alsace-Lorraine in 
the Franco-Prussian War (1870-71). 



AMERICA TRIES TO BE NEUTRAL 



467 




THE bi;rlin-bagdad r,\ilkoad 



With the present Kaiser on the throne, activity of 
another kind began. Now German influence began to 
extend itself out into the world. Germany obtained 
colonies in Africa. She established posts in China, 



468 



THE WORLD WAR 



planned and schemed in South America and Mexico. 
She planted business houses in all parts of the world. 




PRESIDENT WILSON ADDRESSES CONGRESS 



She had already begun to build a great navy, second only 
to Great Britain's. In this way the Kaiser won the 
support of the big business men in Germany. 

The Kaiser encouraged friendship and marriage with 
the smaller nations to the eastward. He even visited 
Turkey and made friends with the Turks. It began to 
be whispered about that the time w^as coming when the 
Berlin-Bagdad railroad, connecting Germany with the 
East, would be a real thing. 

England feared that Germany was aiming at India. 
With the largest and best trained army in the world and 
a growing navy there seemed no limit to the Kaiser's 
ambition, except the British navy. 

AMERICA AND THE ALLIES MAKE WAR TOGETHER 

748. The United States joins the Allies in the war 
(April 6, 1917). President Wilson went before Congress 



AMERICA JOINS THE ALLIES 



469 



and repeated in telling words the wrongs that Germany 
had done, not only against the United States but against 
the civilized world. He declared that "vessels of every 
kind, whatever their flag, the character of their cargo, 
their destination, their errand, have been ruthlessly sent 
to the bottom without warning." German}^ had already 
attacked us, he said, and hence he only asked Congress 
to declare that Germany was making war upon us. 

On April 6, Congress, amid a crowded house, sent forth 
the decree that threw America on the side of the Allies. 
Hundreds of pacifists and pro-Germans had gathered 
in Washington to prevent this declaration, but their work 
was in vain. It should be said, however, that thousands 
of Americalis whose parents were German were loyal to 
America. 

749. Not the government alone but the people go to 
war. Since the war opened, thousands of Americans had 
been taking part in it, some as soldiers in the Canadian 




RED CROSS WORKERS 



army, others as nurses under the Red Cross, and many 
as helpers in preparing bandages ^and in giving money. 



470 THE WORLD WAR 

Now all the people went in :-^^ millions as soldiers ; mil- 
lions of farmers organized to raise more food; millions 
of women joined the Red Cross to prepare bandages, knit 
socks and sweaters ; and other thousands volunteered to go 
to the hospitals at the front. 

The doctors, too, organized and went to the front to care 
for the wounded on the field of battle and in the hospitals. 

Ministers of the gospel volunteered to go with the boys 
to advise them on moral and religious questions. The 
Y.M.C.A. and the Y.W.C.A., the Salvation Army, the 
Hebrew Association, and the Knights of Columbus went 
into the war to do their part. 

The business and professional men in every city and 
town organized to give aid. There was, therefore, no 
class or party in America which did not throw itself into 
the war with all its power, except the radicals. The 
Socialist party declared itself opposed to the war, but it 
split in two as a result. 

THE AMERICAN GOVERNMENT IN THE WAR 

750. The government had to do everything at once. 

Americans have always stood for peace and opposed 
war. Never in our history have we been prepared for 
war when it came. We were less prepared than ever for 
this war, if one thinks of what had to be done. Hence 
we say, the "government had to do everything at once." 

751. Congress voted men and money. Congress voted 
almost every measure to carry on the war that the Presi- 
dent asked for. We soon had a part of our navy in 
European waters helping to fight the submarines. But 
we needed to build all sorts of ships — submarines, sub- 
marine chasers, dreadnaughts, superdreadnaughts, vessels 
to carry soldiers, and ships to carry food and guns. 



AMERICA IN THE WAR 



471 



Airships for fighting had to be built by the thousands. 
We knew how to make airships to sail the air, but to make 
them to carry bombs and guns was a new problem. We 
were a bit slow in getting American airships ready. 

American inventors went to work to improve machine 
guns, big guns, tanks, and airplane engines. Some 
entirely new devices like the depth bomb, used in fighting 
submarines, were invented. 

752. Raising an army. How shall we get our millions 
of men prepared to fight ? ''^" " Volunteers make the finest 



£ 



\C-1/--. 



Si ^ 

















A TRAINING CAMP IN THE UNITED STATES 



soldiers," said those who remembered the Civil War. 
But the government decided on a more democratic way- — 
the "selective draft." Congress ordered all men between 
twenty and thirty-one to appear before "war-boards." 
These boards selected those who were physically fit and 
sent them to training camps in different parts of the 
country. Later all between the ages of eighteen and 
forty-five were summoned. 



472 THE WORLD WAR 

An army of carpenters was at work building the train- 
ing camps, which looked like little cities. Here the boys 
drilled many hours each day. Those who could not 
speak the English language were put in schools where 
they soon got a start in education. The other boys 




A Y. M. C. A. HUT AT ONE OF THE U. S. A. CAMPS 

were busy with athletics of every kind or attending enter- 
tainments given by lectures, by motion pictures, or even 
attending theaters. On Sunday they had an opportunity 
to hear great preachers. The purpose of this was to keep 
the boys "fit" physically and to keep up their spirits. 

753. Pershing goes to France. While the boys were 
being trained. General Pershing was sent to France with 
twenty-five thousand men who had seen service on the 
borders of Mexico (§601). How happy the French people 
were to see the splendid-looking American soldiers ! These 
boys were just a vanguard of the millions yet to come. 

It made the French people think of the time, long ago, 
when they gave Lafayette (§208), De Kalb (§213), and 
Rochambeau (§233) with thousands of soldiers to aid in 
the American Revolution. 

754. Congress gives the President power over the rail- 
roads, telegraph, coal mines, and food supply. The 
President put the railroads under the control of Secretary 



AMERICA IN THE WAR 473 

McAdoo, who immediately cut out trains, combined roads, 
and gave trains carrying munitions, food supplies, and 
troops the right of way. Everything else had to wait. 

It was necessary for the government to control the 
carrying of food, clothes, munitions, and soldiers to the 
coast. Our allies needed these things badly. Germany 
had been pressing them hard for three years, and their 
soldiers were wearing out. 

Harry A. Garfield, president of Williams College, was 
given charge of the coal supply. He sent the coal where 
it was most needed and for a short time closed all factories 
and other places of business not doing work necessary 
for the war. 

Herbert C. Hoover, who had control of the food sent to 
Europe for starving people, was given authority over our 
food supplies. He ordered wheatless and meatless days 
for the table. Housewives had a busy time furnishing 
their tables with "war-bread." But the great majority 
of women did their part. 

755. How the government obtained money to run the 
war. In the Civil War the government asked the people 
for millions of money, but in this war it called for billions. 
In the first place the government raised billions of money 
by increasing taxes. It put a heavy tax on incomes of 
men who had plenty of money or other property. It 
taxed heavily the profits of industry. 

Secondly, it raised billions more by borrowing from the 
people. To make the loan very democratic the govern- 
ment issued bonds as small as fifty dollars. To encourage 
the young people to loan their money to the government, 
it sold War Savings Stamps. 

756. What the government did with these billions. 
(i) It loaned $10,000,000,000 to the Allies, who were 



474 



THE WORLD WAR 




GENERAL FOCH 



really fighting our battles until we could get men ready. 
(2) It took large sums to pay the soldiers, the sailors, the 

men working in the shipyards, 
and in the camps. 

The government raised 
over $30,000,000,000 from 
all sources. This great sum 
our people rnust pay in taxes. 
^ Only those who bought bonds 
■ and Thrift Stamps will ever 
- ' get any of this money back. 
757. The desperate situa- 
tion on the western front. 
Russia had broken down and 
her soldiers were going home. 
The Germans were rushing 
soldiers from the Russian 
front for a last desperate drive on Paris before the 
American army could reach France. This was in the 
spring and summer of 1918. 

A desperate call came for American soldiers to aid in 
saving Paris. Only a few hundred thousand had reached 
France. The others were still training in American 
camps. 

Foch, a great French general, was given control over 
the Allied troops in March. Before there had been 
three armies: Belgian, British, and French. Now these 
fought as one man.^^'' This change came none too soon, 
for in March the Germans began their last great effort. 
The whole Allied world was anxious lest the Germans 
should break through the British line. The line wavered, 
but the French came. The fighting was desperate, but 
the city of Amiens, a great railroad center, was saved. 



AMERICA IN THE WAR 



475 



In a few days the Germans struck at the French line, 
which Hkewise was driven back but finally held. 

The Germans met a new foe, the Americans. The first 
soldiers sent over were placed among British and French 
veterans to get used to the new ways of fighting. These 
men, with the Second Division, at Chateau-Thierry helped 
to block the last advance of the Germans toward Paris. 

758. Rushing troops to France. The need was desper- 
ate. The Allies Were calling loudly early in 1918, although 
we were sending fifty thousand men each month 

But when the last mighty effort of the Germans threat- 
ened to carry them to Paris and to the English Channel, 
our troops had to be rushed over. But where were the 
ships to carry the men? "They cannot be found," said 
the Germans. 
' ' Besides, how can 
the Americans get 
over in the face of 
our submarines ? 
And then the 
Americans are not 
good soldiers, for 
they have been 
trained for only 
a short time." 

Ships seemed to 
come from every- 
where. We seized 
nearly one hun- 
dred German vessels in our ports. We rented ships from 
neutral nations. England gave us some and the other 
Allies a few, and we added some new ships which we had 
built. 2^^ To meet the crisis our allies were willing to turn 




LAUNCHING NEW SHIPS 



476 



THE WORLD WAR 



ships carrying food to Europe into ships to carry our 
soldier boys. 

War vessels guarded the ships carrying our men so 
that no submarines dared come near them. The depth 
bomb was the terror of the submarine ! 

Ten thousand soldiers reached France every day in 
July, 1 91 8, and by the first of November we had sent 
more than two million men to France. 

759. The Allied counter-drive brings victory. In the 
summer the Americans formed a separate army under 
General Pershing. Foch was now ready to strike back 
with all the power of the united armies (July 18). One 
blow after another fell rapidly on the Germans. The 
German line was broken in many places, and mighty guns 
roared from the shores of the North Sea to Switzerland. 



./^^' 









k '^-'^^'*^^-^-^-S>rv'-^- 












'^'"'M 




A BIG GUN IN ACTION ON THE FRENCH FRONT 

The American marines'-'^'-* had already covered them- 
selves with glory at Belleau Wood, and now the American 



AMERICA IN THE WAR 



477 




THE WESTERN FRONT 



soldiers won a brilliant victory at St. Mihiel. There 
five hundred thousand Americans met the best troops 
Germany had, captured sixteen thousand of them, 
and went smashing through their lines. 



478 THE WORLD WAR 

But in the Argonne Forest was fought the biggest 
battle Americans ever took part in. Over a milHon men 




'^%mm^^CfyX$§iii;c&LM:,, 



DESTROYING A SUBMARINE 

in khaki fought Hke heroes for over a month. They drove 
the Germans reeHng back toward the Rhine."*' The 
British and French had been hurhng back the Germans, 
too. The German people could not believe the news 
of defeat. 

760. Trouble in Germany. The work of the British 
and American navies had been choking the life out of 
Germany. Her people were hungry and tired of fighting. 
They threatened to rise in revolt. 

Austria had been urging Germany to make peace, for she 
had been defeated by the Italians. Bulgaria (September 
30) and Turkey (October 31) had quit fighting. Austria, 
too, ceased fighting (November 3). 

All at once, in November, came the news of a threat- 
ened revolution on the part of the German people. Next, 
the Kaiser had fled to Holland. -^^ This was Germany's 
situation when she asked Foch for terms of an armistice. 

761. The terms given to Germany. The German gen- 
erals came blindfolded to Foch's camp, while the Allied 
guns were booming all along the battle line. 



AMERICA IN THE WAR 479 

On November ii, Foch agreed to the following terms: 
The Germans were to quit Belgium and France, and the 
Allies were to occupy that part of Germany west of the 
Rhine. The Germans were to surrender most of their 
cannon, machine guns, airplanes, locomotives, freight cars, 
warships, submarines, and merchant ships to the Allies. 

The common man was on top in Germany. Thus the 
last great stronghold of aristocracy had gone down before 
democracy. 

The guns now ceased to roar, and the world looked on a 
broken and torn Europe. 

762. What the war cost in men. The number of men 
killed in the war staggers the imagination. More than 
seven million men fell in battle and twice as many were 
wounded. More than a hundred thousand American boys 
lost their lives, and many times as many were wounded. 

The most of these men were young and strong of 
body. What a mighty loss the world suffered ! It appears 
even greater when we remember the millions of widows 
and orphans the war made. The cost of this war is 





^m^j'W^-' ^?s^t 



ffiflj 



AMERIC\N TROOPS IN FR\NtE 



gigantic when to all this loss we add the suffering in 
mind and body that the war caused. 



480 THE WORLD WAR 

763. The cost in money and property. The money 
cost of the war no man knows. We can say the nations 
spent over $200,000,000,000. How much is this? The 
mind staggers at its size. 

But this is not all: the sinking of ships and cargoes, 
the destruction of hundreds of villages and cities, the 
tearing up of acres and acres of farm lands and their 
growing crops, the destruction of the mines and factories 
of Belgium and France make a loss that is unthinkable. 

War is certainly an awful thing, but if this World War 
saved to the people the right to rule themselves as they 
wish, the price paid was not too great. 

AMERICA AFTER THE WAR 

764. The making of peace. The men appointed by 
the Allies met in a suburb of Paris, called Versailles. 
President Wilson journeyed to Europe, and was warmly 
received by all the people because they were happy that 
America came into the war and because the common 
people felt that Wilson stood for democracy. 

Largely through Wilson's influence the League of 
Nations was made a part of the treaty of peace. These 
men worked until June, 1919, in getting the treaty ready. 
The Germans were then called to sign it. They did sign 
it under great protest. They said the treaty was too 
hard on Germany. She had to give up Alsace-Lorraine 
and all her colonies; she had to reduce her army to 
a hundred thousand men and agree not to train soldiers 
as in former years; she must not build up a great navy 
as before; she must pay enormous sums of money to 
Belgium and France. 

765. The League of Nations. The first purpose of the 
League was to make war forever impossible. 



AMERICA AFTER THE WAR 



This League is given the power to shut off all commerce 
with a nation which goes to war. It may even use force, 
if necessary, to pre- 
vent war. To en- 
courage peace each 
nation belonging to 
the League pledges 
itself to cut down 
its army and navy 
and to submit dis- 
putes with another 
nation to a grand 
court made up of 
the great judges of 
different nations. If 
any nation violates 
its pledge, it can be 
expelled from the 
League. 

766. The Senate 
fails to ratify the 
treaty. Afterhe 
returned President Wilson called a number of senators 
to the White House to talk over the treaty. The Senate 
opposed the treaty, because it did not like the League 
part of it. 

President Wilson resolved to go on a speaking tour in 
defense of the League. He went as far as the Pacific, but 
on the return journey he suffered a stroke which made it 
impossible for him to speak further. 

The battle went on in the Senate, but finally the ques- 
tion of the League was left to become the main topic of 
debate in the campaign of 1920. 
17 




MARSHAL FOCH AND TIIF-: BIG FOUR AT THE 
PEACE CONFERENCE 



482 THE WORLD WAR 

767. The economic and industrial effects of the war on 
America. The war tore the industry of the world to 
pieces. In America it set thousands of men and women 
to work in munition factories, in machine shops making 
instruments of war, in factories for producing airplanes, 
in shipyards for building new kinds of ships, in training 
camps building huts for the soldiers, and in many other 
new works. Not only were the men in strange shops 
making strange things, but they were working for wages 
greater than they had ever received before. 

Thousands of men were taken out of their usual lines 
of work. This made labor scarce in these lines of work, 
and wages went still higher. The want of labor caused 
a shortage in living supplies of all kinds and in turn caused 
prices to rise higher. 

The government issued millions of paper money. This 
disturbed prices again, and they soared still higher. The 
workingman called for a higher w^age after the war. When 
he did not get it he struck. There was an era of high 
prices, extravagance, and profiteering. The fall in prices 
did not begin until September, 1920. 

768. The great strike era (1919-20). In many indus- 
tries it was almost impossible for wages to increase as 
fast as prices. In many cases workmen had agreed to 
work for a time at certain wages. But prices were still 
rising, and the men were not satisfied with their old 
wages. 

The workmen in New York City engaged in loading 
and unloading ships went on a strike. Ships could not 
be unloaded. Many of them carried perishable products, 
and the loss was great. 

The steel workers struck and tried to stop the making 
of steel. They demanded shorter hours and more pay. 



AMERICA AFTER THE WAR 483 

Rioting occurred in some places, and General Wood was 
called with troops to keep order. 

President Wilson appointed a committee made up of 
strikers, the steel owners, and the public. These men 
met to patch up the difficulty, but could not agree on 
any terms of settlement. 

The strike ran on, but the people got the impression 
that the strikers were under the influence of radical 
leaders. The result was the failure of the strike after the 
strikers had lost millions in wages. 

The strike of the soft-coal workers had an entirely 
different ending. The courts were appealed to and 
ordered the men back to work, for winter was on, and 
the loss in business was very great, and the suffering 
of the people threatened to be widespread. But the 
strikers finally went to work. 

A committee appointed by the President made an 
examination of the coal situation and finally decided on 
an increase in wages thought just to the miners, to the 
mine owners, and to the public. The people, as a rule, 
must pay every increase in the cost of mining coal or in 
the cost of producing anything else. 

769. The effort to control high prices (1920). The 
government, in going suddenly into a war for which little 
preparation had been made, was compelled to pay high 
prices for everything it needed. As the government was 
one of the first causes of high prices, so it undertook 
to control the high cost of living. It did this by investi- 
gating prices and by arresting and trying certain men 
who were accused of selling goods at prices unusually 
high in a time of high prices. Some men were found 
guilty and fined. But it wa-s believed that this did not 
have much effect in lowering prices. 



484 THE WORLD WAR 

MORAL AND SOCIAL EFFECTS OF THE WAR 

770. Effects on the churches. The war tended to 
bring the churches together. The news of how their 
members, wounded and dying, were cared for by men of 
different faiths roused a warm sympathy for one another 
among the different rehgious denominations. The result 
was that some genuine efforts were made for cooperation 
among churches of widely different beliefs. 

The churches resolved to widen their field of work. To 
do this it became necessary to collect vast sums of money. 
The Methodist church was the first in the field and suc- 
ceeded in pledging over $100,000,000. Other churches 
followed, and each obtained more than it set out for. 

With this money the churches propose to give strength 
to weak churches ; take better care of the country churches ; 
encourage the city churches to carry on home missions 
on a greater scale ; build gymnasiums for the young people 
of the church and neighborhood; and finally widen the 
mission work in foreign fields. Almost every church in 
America has gone into the work of relieving distress in 
war-torn Europe. Some have even undertaken the task 
of restoring towns in the devastated regions.-" 

771. Growth of the movement for prohibition. At 
first growth in the sentiment for prohibiting the liquor 
traffic was slow indeed. We have seen its rise and fall 
(§§388, 522). Out of five states Maine alone remained 
steadfast. After the Civil War other states voted for 
prohibition, but only Kansas remained true. 

But within the last ten years prohibition sentiment has 
been rapidly rising. By December, 191 7, twenty-four 
states had gone dry. Congress passed laws prohibiting 
liquor in the District of Columbia and forbidding its 
being taken into a dry state. 



MORAL AND SOCIAL EFFECTS 485 

War caused a rapid growth of sentiment in favor of 
temperance. Congress put the ban on whisky and 
decided that beer should not contain more than 2.75 per 
cent of alcohol. Finally Congress adopted the Eighteenth 
Amendment, and forty-five state legislatures ratified it. 
It thus became a part of the Constitution (1920). 

In spite of the fact that prohibition has been written 
into the Constitution, there arose a considerable demand 
for the interpretation of the amendment which will give 
the right to manufacture beer and wine. This was one of 
the questions debated in the presidential campaign (1920). 

772. The struggle for the rights of women. The World 
War, too, had its bearings on the question of woman 
suffrage, as we shall see. 

Far back in the days of the American Revolution, one 
brave woman, the wife of John Adams, raised her voice 
for the rights of women (§239). A bit later New Jersey 
took action favorable for women (§240). 

Growing out of the world-wide movement for moral 
reform (1830), the cause of woman took on new life and 
energy. Very few were the rights then belonging to 
woman. She could not go to school in either high school 
or college where men were. Factory work was open to 
her, but almost no other business or profession. If a 
woman with property married, her husband took over its 
control. She was shut out from becoming a lawyer, a 
doctor, or a preacher. 

When a brave woman like Frances Wright of New 
York demanded that these privileges be granted to 
women, men poked fun at her; and women, too, were not 
slow to smile at her "queer notions." 

773. The woman's movement grows. The abolition 
agitation caused a step forward in the new movement. 



486 THE WORLD WAR 

Some men saw that woman's help was needed in the 
anti-slavery cause (§407). Abraham Lincoln, a young 
man just then plunging into Illinois politics, declared 
he was in favor of everybody sharing the privileges of 
government, " by no means excluding the females " (1836). 
The first national convention in favor of woman's 
rights was held in Seneca Falls, New York ( 1 848) . It was 
called by Lucretia Mott, Martha C. Wright, Elizabeth 
Cady Stanton, and Mary Ann McClintock. It tried to 
arouse the attention of the country by sending forth a 
"Declaration of Rights." 

774. Rapid progress of woman's rights. Although the 
newspapers and writers still made fun of "petticoat" 
government, the "Declaration of Rights" won other 
women to their ranks. Among these were Margaret 
Fuller, Lucy Stone, Susan B. Anthony, and Julia Ward 
Howe. 

With these new recruits and the help of the abolition 
leaders their hopes rose high. They were looking forward 
to the time when universal suffrage would prevail. But 
the Civil War came, and they saw their ' ' brother in black 
given the ballot which had been denied them. 

775. First victories in the West. Disappointed by 
Congress, women now turned to the states. They had 
been encouraged to do this by what occurred in the new 
state of Kansas. The legislature had given women the 
right to vote in school elections (186 1). The women 
organized a great state campaign for complete suffrage. 
It was an odd sight to see public meetings held by 
women in every sort of place in Kansas. They did not 
win, but they took courage from the size of their vote. 

The West was their hope. In 1869 the territory of 
Wyoming granted women complete suffrage. When 



MORAL AND SOCIAL EFFECTS 487 

Wyoming entered the Union, so well pleased had she 
been with the experiment that full suffrage was written 
into her state constitution. 

■ In four more years Colorado joined Wyoming in favor 
of women. While Utah was still a territory, her men 
granted women this boon, and Hke Wyoming, when she 
became a state, Utah again established the right of women 
to vote. The fourth state to vote in favor of woman 
suffrage was Idaho, another mountain state (1896). 

For fourteen years afterward, the many campaigns for 
woman's vote failed. The aggressive mountain states 
had nearly all been won for women; the other states 
were not yet ready. 

In 1 91 0-12 came a return wave in favor of woman's 
political rights. Washington began the movement (19 10) 
which swept in California (191 2), Oregon, Arizona, and 
Kansas (19 13). These victories caused great rejoicing 
among the women. They were hardly done rejoicing 
when news came that far-away Alaska had placed herself 
under their banner and had granted suffrage to women. 
The next year Nevada and Montana came to their 
support (19 14). 

In 191 7 they carried New York by over one hundred 
thousand majority. Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, North 
Dakota, and Nebraska gave the women the right to vote 
on certain questions. The movement seemed to be 
gaining great power, but some old states still held back. 

776. The Susan B. Anthony Amendment. The amend- 
ment for woman suffrage, first introduced in 1878, was 
named for Miss Anthony, a famous suffragist living in 
Rochester, New York. It read: "The right of citizens 
of the United States to vote shall not be denied by the 
United States or any state on account of sex." 



THE WORLD WAR 



For a long time there seemed little hope of the adoption 
of the amendment. The great progressive movement 
stirred public sentiment to its depths (19 12), and the 
Progressive party stood for woman suffrage. In the 
campaign of 191 6 Hughes, the Republican candidate, 
favored suffrage by national amendment, and Wilson, the 
Democratic, by state action. 

777. Congress takes action. The great victories won 
by women opened the eyes of Congress, and the Lower 
House passed the Anthony Amendment on January 10, 
1 91 8. The Senate followed more tardily. The amend- 
ment went to the people of the various states for 
ratification. It could hardly fail, for woman in the 
war had proved her ability to take man's place in war 
work, as well as in many industries. The war could 
not have succeeded without her. 

But old prejudices die 
hard, and it was not until 
the campaign of 1920 that 
the thirty-sixth state voted 
in favor of the amendment 
and it became a part of, the 
Constitution. 

778. The 1920 campaign. 
Long before time for the 
nominating conventions 
the Republicans had several 
candidates in the field. 
Among these were General 
Wood, Governor Lowden of 
Illinois, Senator Johnson of 
California, and Senator Harding of Ohio. The Democrats, 
too, had a number of candidates. Among them were 




Copyright by Harris & Ewing 
WARREN G. HARDING 



MORAL AND SOCIAL EFFECTS 489 

ex-Secretary McAdoo, Attorney-General Palmer, and 
Governor Cox of Ohio. 

The Republicans met at Chicago, and after a hard 
battle nominated Harding of Ohio for president and 
Coolidge of Massachusetts for the vice-presidency. The 
Democrats went to San Francisco and nominated Cox for 
the first place and Assistant Secretary of Navy Roosevelt 
for the second place. 

The main questions under debate in this campaign 
were as follows: the League of Nations, which most 
Republicans opposed and most Democrats supported; the 
question of prohibition, which both parties tried to avoid; 
and Wilson's administration. Republicans asserted that 
it had been wasteful and extravagant, and that President 
Wilson was an autocrat, while the Democrats stoutly 
denied the truth of these charges. 

The Prohibitionists nominated a man from Ohio. This 
made the campaign unique in having three candidates 
from the same state. For the fourth time the Socialists 
nominated Eugene V. Debs. 

The campaign was a very bitter one. It resulted in 
Harding's winning a larger majority over Cox in the 
people's vote and the electoral vote than has ever been 
given to any candidate.-" 

SUGGESTED READINGS 

References for teachers: Bassett, History of the World War; World's 
Work, i()\/\.-2o; Review of Reviews, 1914-20; Independent, 1914-20; 
Outlook, 1914-20; Literary Digest, 1914-20; Current Events, 1914-20; 
Rose, Origins of the War; McMaster, The United States in the World 
War. 

References for pupils: Powell, The Spirit of Democracy; Van Dyke, 
Fighting for France; Bott, Cavalry of the Clouds; Gibbons, And They 
Thought We Wouldn't Fight; O'Brien, Outwitting the Hun; Paine, The 
Fighting Fleets. 



490 THE WORLD WAR 

PROBLEMS AND PROJECTS 

I. Imagine a familiar conversation with ex-President Roose- 
velt, one with ex-President Taft, and one with ex-President Wilson 
on the sinking of the "Lusitania." 2. Take a trip on a submarine. 3. 
Another in an airship. 4. Write about your experience in a tank 
battle. 5. Write a composition on your father's, mother's, sister's, 
or brother's part in the war. 



THE APPENDIX 

THE NOTES 

1. If the pupils have read that charming little book, Old Europe 
and Young America, published by Rand McNally and Company, they 
will need to read the next pages only by way of review. 

2. How long an English village may be kept in one family by pass- 
ing from father to son, may be seen in the fact that an EngHsh noble- 
man has recently sold his village (191 8). This shows how long old 
customs will live. 

3. Kings once beUeved that they ruled by "divine right." After- 
wards they continued to make their people believe this. The last 
great ruler to fool his people thus was Kaiser "William II, of Germany. 

4. For hundreds of years the Turks held the Holy Land. They 
crossed into Europe and killed thousands of Christians. The Chris- 
tians tried to wrest the Holy Land from the Mohammedans, but it 
remained for the British in the great World War to defeat the Turk 
and capture Palestine. 

5. This was a happy mistake because there were few men in the 
world then bold enough to sail halfway around the earth even to find 
India. Columbus figured the distance was not more than 4,000 miles, 
if he sailed west. 

6. Sailors now know that the compass will vary a bit in some parts 
of the earth. But neither Columbus nor his sailors knew this. Colum- 
bus found it hard to invent an explanation that would satisfy his 
sailors. 

7. Jealousy was the cause of his arrest. Queen Isabella set him 
free. 

8. Vespucius cannot be blamed for what others did. Columbus, 
however, has had his full share of honor. Poetry hails this country as 
the "Land of Coluinbia," and many towns and cities, a district, and 
a university have taken his name. 

9. The Mexicans and Peruvians had made more progress than any 
other Indians. It took long and hard fighting to conquer them. 
Peruvians had the llama to carry packs for them, but the Mexicans 
had no pack animal. These countries were rich in silver and poured 
millions into the lap of Spain. 

10. De Soto wandered westward as far as Oklahoma and as far 
north as southern Missouri, it is thought. 

491 



492 THE APPENDIX 

11. This name was given by Coronado to the buffalo or American 
bison. 

12. The French king demanded to know whether "our first father, 
Adam, made them [Spain and Portugal] his sole heirs .... and 
until I do, I shall feel at liberty to seize all the land in the New World 
I can get." 

13. The leader of the Huguenots in France was Coligny. He won 
great fame as a soldier and received permission from the king of 
France, a Catholic, to plant a colony in Florida. 

14. The rivalry between Spain and England grew into a quarrel 
which marks a turning point in the history of the world. Both nations 
were proud and jealous. Then their religion was different, too. Eng- 
land was Protestant and Spain Roman Catholic. Englishmen were 
seeking trade everywhere in the world, and so was Spain. English 
sailors fell upon Spanish ships laden with gold and silver from Mexico 
and Peru. 

Holland and Spain had the same differences, except that Spain 
claimed the right to send governors to rule the Dutch. The governors 
were cruel, and the Dutch revolted. Then followed a long and bloody 
war. So desperate did the Spaniards become that they assassinated 
the Dutch leader, William the Silent. England then came to the 
help of the Dutch. The Spaniards were angrier at the English than 
ever and resolved to send the great Armada to punish England. The 
destruction of this great fleet "meant safety for England, freedom for 
the Dutch, and the decline of Spain." England went bravely forward 
with planting settlements in America. 

15. The Iroquois were composed of the Mohawks, the Oneidas, 
the Onondagas, the Cayugas, and the Senecas. These made up the 
Five Nations. The.Tuscaroras, driven from the South (1713), joined 
the Iroquois. After this these Indians were called the Six Nations. 

16. The Spaniards kept a sharp eye on Enghsh settlements. How 
they felt about Englishmen occupying Virginia may be seen from a 
letter to the Spanish king written by the Spanish ambassador: "It 
will be serving God and your Majesty to drive these villains out from 
there [Jamestown] and hang them." 

17. Smith was captured by the Indians. Just as he was about to 
be killed, Pocahontas, the beautiful young, daughter of the Indian 
chief, so the story runs, sprang to Smith's rescue and claimed him as 
her own. Pocahontas became the good angel to the colony, telling 
the settlers of Indian attacks and helping them find food. She 
married John Rolfe, and they visited friends in England. Pocahontas 
was received as an "Indian princess" by the king and queen. John 
Randolph of Roanoke, once a leader of the House of Representatives 
and a friend of Jefferson, was descended from Pocahontas. Mrs. 
Woodrow Wilson is also related to Pocahontas. 

18. Each act named in this paragraph is an "old home " custom for 
which Englishmen had long struggled. The Virginians had tried many 



THE APPENDIX 493 

new experiments in governing themselves but now were glad to get 
back to old English ways. 

Here are some of the leading men trained for the great Revolution 
by the House of Burgesses: Washington, Jefferson, Richard Henry 
Lee, Patrick Henry, Edmund Pendleton, Benjamin Harrison, Richard 
Bland, Edmund Randolph, John Marshall, and George Mason. 

19. The rule of the two sets of Stuart kings forms an interesting 
chapter in English history ( 1 603-88) . James I and Charles I ( 1 603-49) 
quarreled with Parliament over money and religion. James threw 
leaders of Parliament into prison and drove Puritans out of England. 
Charles quarreled with Parliament, dismissed it, and declared he would 
never call another. But the Scots saved the day. They invaded 
England becatise Charles was trying to force them to be Episcopalians. 
The King had to call Parliament to get money to fight. Parliament 
and King quarreled and went to war. Oliver Cromwell, the great 
Puritan general, overthrew the King's soldiers and thrust him into 
prison. Parliament tried and executed Charles I. Cromwell now 
became the head of the government. He was a stern, unyielding man, 
but a great soldier. His government was carried on mainly by com- 
mon men. He showed what he could do. His soldiers were called 
"Ironsides." They often sang and prayed before going into battle. 

After Cromwell died, Englishmen called Charles H to be king 
(1660). He was lazy and easy-going and ran the government deeply 
into debt. His brother, James H, succeeded him (1684). Neither king 
learned anything from the past. James turned tyrant. English 
people thought he was trying to make Englishmen into Catholics. 
They rose against him, and he fled to France. The revolution 
was short. William and Mary of Holland were called to the throne, 
and Parliament passed what was known as the Bill of Rights. The 
rights named in this document were claimed by Englishmen living in 
America, as well as those in England (1689). 

20. The Puritans settled the town of Annapolis, at first called 
Providence. When they got hold of Maryland's government, they 
removed the capital from Saint Mary's to Annapolis. We all know 
that here is located our great naval academy. 

21. See note 19. 

22. Carohna extended from Virginia to Florida and was named 
in honor of the King. The constitution was called the Grand Model. 
It was a grand failure. It planned to establish a kind of feudalism 
with all different classes of people. 

23. The "pretenders" were descendants of James II. They 
claimed the right to rule in place of the Georges. The pretenders were 
Roman Catholics, and so were some of the Scotch Highlanders. 

24. In France Protestants were called Huguenots. They were 
followers of the great reformer, John Calvin. They were persecuted in 
France, and we have seen them trying to found a colony. Thousands 
of them were slain in the great Massacre of St. Bartholemew's Day. 



494 THE APPENDIX 

Henry IV freed them from persecution, and they prospered. They 
were skilled in industry and had many learned men. Louis XIV 
did iiot like them, so he took away their freedom of worship. 
Thousands fled to Germany, to Holland, to England, and to America. 

25. Do you know anyone whose ancestors came over in the "May- 
flower"? Find such a person and ask him about his ancestors. 
Myles Standish was not a Pilgrim, but had joined the Dutch when 
they were fighting against Spain. 

26. The Petition of Right was a famous landmark along the road 
to English liberty. It is only a bit less noted than Magna Charta. 
The King promised to obey Parhament. See note 19. 

27. See note 19. 

28. Roger Williams, a young Puritan preacher, was driven from 
England (1632). He preached in several towns in Massachusetts 
and stirred up the people by his doctrines. He did not worry over the 
effects of his doctrines, but leaders in the colony did. 

Anne Hutchinson criticized the preachers and the officers of the 
colony. The men were divided in their opinions of her, but the 
majority were against her. 

Modern society does not agree with the Puritans that Roger 
Williams and Anne Hutchinson were dangerous citizens. 

29. See note 19. 

30. This constitution did not mention th§ king, but only the people. 
It created a government. Magna Charta, the Bill of Rights, and the 
Mayflower Compact did not pretend to set up a government. 

31. Java, Sumatra, and other islands still belong to Holland. 

32. While Hudson was sailing up this river, Champlain was explor- 
ing the near-by lake which bears his name, and John Smith was trading 
for food with the Indians in Virginia. 

33. This wall gave its name to Wall Street, now famous as the 
money center of the United States. 

34. The Navigation Acts were first aimed at the Dutch. These 
acts forbade them to trade with the English colonies. The Dutch 
were angry, and finally war broke out. Their great sea captain, Van 
Tromp, fastened a broom to his masthead and declared he would sweep 
England from the seas. But the English, too, were great sea fighters 
and forced the Dutch to make peace (1653). Cromwell was glad, 
for, like the Dutch, he was aj Protestant, and England and Holland 
had long been friends. Charles II did not feel this way and seized 
the colony of New Amsterdam (1664). 

35. This was done in honor of James, Duke of York and Albany. 

36. The Bowery is the name of another famous New York street. 
It is the home of poor people. 

37. The soldiers of Gustavus went into battle singing and praying. 
The Germans hold his name in grateful remembrance. 

38. Penn stood at the parting of the ways. He could be a fine 
gentleman, belong in high society, and attend the king's court or he 



THE APPENDIX 49S 

could be a poor and despised Quaker. Banishment and jails could 
not move him. He stood firm as a rock. 

39. The names of persons such as Paul Revere, John Jay, Boudinot, 
Dabney, Laurens, and Sevier and of places such as Faneuil Hall, 
Debrosses Ferry, and New Rochelle remind people today of the debt 
owed to France since colonial times. 

40. An interesting survival to our day is seen in the classes existing 
among the servants in any community. 

41. A common way of showing respect, which survives to our time, 
is the custom of lifting the hat to ladies. Gentlemen of equal rank in 
Germany lift the hat when they meet each other. 

42. These rude ways of living were common on the frontier when 
Lincoln was a boy. 

43. Lawrence Washington, George's half-brother, spent a year or 
more in a London school. Between 1760 and 1765 a score or more of 
young men from Charleston went to England to attend school. 

44. John Bartram, a poor boy, became an orphan at thirteen. He 
studied after his day's work was done. He founded in Philadelphia 
the first botanical garden in America. He wrote papers for European 
botanical societies. A friend said that Bartram would go one hun- 
dred, miles to see a new plant. 

45. Augustine Washington, father of George, was captain of a ship 
carrying iron ore from Virginia to London. There he had the happy 
fortune to fall in love with Mary Ball, called "the Rose of Epping 
Forest" on account of her beauty. She, too, was a Virginian, visiting 
in London. They were married. 

46. John Hancock of Boston, one of the richest men in the colo- 
nies, gained his fortune largely by making rum. 

47. At different times 'during the colonial period the southern 
colonies, through their legislatures, sent earnest protests to Parliament 
against dmiiping slaves upon them. 

48. The Barbadoes and Jamaica were the leading English West 
India islands. 

49. Lord Chatham called them the Bible of the English Consti- 
tution. 

50. Two brothers of George Washington were members of the Ohio 
Company. Before this, George had gone across the Blue Ridge Moun- 
tains and surveyed the lands of his friend, Lord Fairfax. He had 
spent several years in this wild region and knew the wa.,s of the Indian. 

51. Before Braddock died, he saw his inistake. He gave his favorite 
servant. Bishop, to Washington. At Braddock's grave Washington 
read prayers. Washington himself had four bullets through his clothes 
and a number of horses shot imder liim. 

52. Longfellow's Evangeline is based on scenes connected with the 
scattering of the Acadians. 

53. The proof of this is found in the fact that ParHament paid back 
to the colonics $5,000,000. 



496 THE APPENDIX 

54. In a nook in Westminster Abbey may be seen the monument 
erected by Massachusetts to the memory of General Howe. 

55. The people of Canada, loving the names of both Wolfe and 
Montcalm, have erected a single monument to keep alive the memory 
of their heroic deeds. 

56. James Otis, a Boston lawyer, carried the question to the courts. 
He resigned his office under the king to plead the cause of the 
merchants. He declared that "our ancestors and we, their descend- 
ants, are entitled to all the rights of the British Constitution." In 
this he struck the "keynote" of the first half of the Revolution. 

George III had an excuse for using these writs, for the Americans 
were great smugglers. It cost England $40,000 to collect $5,000 in 
revenue. 

57. England required the colonists to pay for the stamps in coin. 
This was hard on the colonists, for they had been carrying on trade 
by exchanging one sort of goods for another. They were not per- 
mitted to coin money. 

58. The leaders were James Otis, Christopher Gadsden, and John 
Rutledge of South Carolina, John Dickinson of Permsylvania, and the 
Livingstons of New York. 

59. The non-importation agreements had almost destroyed the 
American trade of the English merchants. 

60. England proposed to spend this money In America by paying 
the king's officers. 

61. The English Whigs were having exciting times. A member 
had been expelled from Parliament for criticizing the king in No. 45 
of a certain paper. The Massachusetts assembly gave ninety-two 
votes against recalling the "Circular Letter." In England toasts were 
drunk to "ninety-two" and "forty-five" as symbols of liberty. In 
America ninety-two patriots would drink forty-five toasts, or the dance 
would have ninety-two jigs and forty-five minuets, or ninety-two Sons 
of Liberty would raise a flagstaff forty-five feet high. This shows a 
warm sympathy between English and American Whigs. 

62. The Regulating Act raised a new question that was deeper 
than taxation. May Parliament change colonial charters which it did 
not make? America said "No." William Pitt, now Lord Chatham, 
agreed with them. In the debate in the House of Lords, Chatham did 
Samuel Adams the honor of quoting from his "Circular Letter," de- 
claring that the opinions in it would be Chatham's to the end. 

63. Daniel Webster advised young men who wished to drink deeply 
of the spirit and life of the Revolutionary fathers to read the noble 
papers sent forth by this Congress. Lord Chatham said: "When 
your Lordships look at these papers, when you consider their decency, 
firmness, and wisdom, you cannot but respect their cause and wish to 
make it your own." 

64. Franklin had been in England for several years as the agent 
for some of the colonies. Eight years before, the Whigs in Parliament 



THE APPENDIX 497 

summoned him to appear before a committee on the Stamp Act. 
His answers, no doubt, had much to do with the repeal of that act. 
Chatham invited Franldin to be present on the day he presented his 
plan to the House of Lords. It gave the great orator an opportunity 
to praise Franklin by declaring that he was an honor to the EngUsh 
name and ranked with the great men of the world. 

65. Afterward John Randolph declared that they were "raised 
in a minute, aiTned in a minute, fought in a minute, and vanc^uished 
the enemy in a minute." 

66. Lafayette, not yet eighteen, a captain of artillery in the old 
fortress of Metz, listened to the story of how the American fanners 
fought that day at Lexington. He then resolved to link his name and 
fortune with the American cause. How fitting that American soldiers 
who captured Metz should pennit the French to enter first, on the heels 
of the retreating GeiTnans (1918). 

67. In two battles the Americans had proved themselves sharp- 
shooters. From childhood they had been taught to handle the gmi. 
All pioneer people are skillful in the use of arms. 

68. In a few days brave General Morgan appeared in camp and 
saluted Washington, saying: "From the right bank of the Poto- 
mac." His men were Washington's own neighbors. They had marched 
to Cambridge, six hundred miles, in twenty-one days. They bore 
on their hunting shirts Patrick Henry's famous words, "Give me 
liberty or give me death!" Washington got down from his horse and 
shook hands with each man. 

69. George III, a German by descent, called upon one of the 
German princes for help. He paid so much a head for the Hessian 
soldiers. Congress offered them free land, and hundreds deserted. 

70. This was the Mecldenburg Declaration of Independence. The 
people of this region were Scotch-Irish Presbyterians. 

71. There were able men among the Tories. Many of them were 
well-to-do and well educated. They were the "upper classes" in 
many communities. Among them were Governor Hutchinson of 
Massachusetts, Lord Fairfax of Virginia, and Count Rumford. The 
Count went to England and held high position. He finally joined the 
armies of the king of Bavaria, and was made a general. In Munich, 
the capital of Bavaria, stands a monument erected to his memory. 
It is estimated that forty thousand Tories fled to Canada and New 
Brunswick. 

72. Jefferson was skillful in the use of the pen. He was true to 
the facts in laying the reasons for the Declaration of Independence 
at the door of the king, and in not blaming the English people. 

73. Howe brought a pardon from George III. He directed it 
to "George Washington, Esq." Washington returned the letter 
unopened. The next time it came addressed to "General George 
Washington." Washington sent a short reply, stating that the Ameri- 
cans needed no pardon since they ];iad done no wrong. 



498 THE APPENDIX 

Nathan Hale, a school teacher, disguised himself and went to Howe's 
camp to gather news for Washington. He was discovered, arrested, 
and tried as a spy. Just before he was hanged he declared: "I only- 
regret that I have but one life to give for my country." 

74. Washington's amiy was without money. Congress did not 
have any. After pledging his own fortune, Washington obtained 
$50,000, which Robert Morris had raised by going from door to door in 
Philadelphia. This tided it over, and it was ready for Princeton. 

75.. CornwaUis never forgot the "trick" Washington played him 
at Trenton. At Yorlctown CornwaUis remarked to Washington: 
"Nothing can excel your Excellency's skill at Trenton." 

76. At Fort Stanwix, after the retreat of St. Leger, the brave 
backwoodsmen heard that Congress had adopted a flag. They 
immediately ran up a flag to celebrate the victory. It was made 
from a white shirt, a blue jacket, and red stripes from a petticoat. 

The patriots had used several different flags in different parts of 
the country. One contained a picture of a rattlesnake with the 
words: "Don't tread on me." Another contained the words of 
Patrick Hemy: "Liberty or Death." Colonel Moultrie, defending 
Charleston (1776) against the British fleet, used a blue flag with a 
white crescent and the word "Liberty" in large letters. The Pine 
Tree flag was a favorite, too. 

But the Star-Spangled Banner grew out of the red flag of England. 
Washington, at Boston, raised a flag containing the crosses of St. George 
and St. Andrew, but the red field had been divided into thirteen stripes, 
red and white. The colonies were still hoping for an understanding 
with George IH. They had gone to war only for this end. 

When Congress lost hope of peace, it adopted (1777) the Stars and 
Stripes as the flag of the new republic. The only change made in 
Washington's flag was to put thirteen white stars on a blue back- 
ground in place of the crosses. 

About a year before this action Betsy Ross of Philadelphia, at the 
request of Washington, Robert Morris, and George Ross, made a flag 
like the one voted by Congress. Betsy Ross' home, where she 
made the flag, still stands, an object of veneration preserved by the 
Daughters of the American Revolution. 

77. Arnold and Morgan did most of the fighting at Saratoga. 
Burgoyne said to General Morgan: "Sir, you command the finest 
regiment in the world!" This was a regiment of sharpshooters. A 
wounded German, lying on the ground, shot Arnold and shattered his 
leg injured at Quebec. An American soldier made for the German 
to run his bayonet tlirough him. Arnold cried: "For God's sake 
don't hurt him! He's a fine fellow!" What a hero Arnold would 
have been had he died in this battle! 

78. The "Conway Cabal" was a plot to have Congress turn 
Washington out and put Gates in his place. The plotters were dis- 
covered, and Washington was more highly esteemed than before. 



THE APPENDIX 499 

79. Many of the better educated Frenchmen sympathized with 
English and American Whigs. They hoped for the day when France 
would become a republic. The king feared the influence of this class 
of people as well as of the common people. 

80. The battle was going well until General Lee began to retreat. 
Washington rode on the field, reprimanded Lee, ordered him to the 
rear, and himself restored order. Lee was tried before a military court 
and dismissed from the army. 

81. "Bon Homme Richard" means "Good man Richard." The 
ship was named in honor of Franklin's Poor Richard's Almanac. 

82. Here fell Count Pulaski at the head of his famous legion while 
making a charge. He was a brave Pole and died far from home and 
native land, while fighting for freedom in America. 

83. Marion was a small man but a mighty warrior. He was a 
Huguenot and was called the "Swamp Fox" by the British. He 
invited a British officer to dine with him one day. Marion's servant, 
as they sat on a log, brought some baked sweet potatoes on pieces of 
bark! The Englishman resigned and went home, declaring it was no 
use fighting such people. 

84. De Kalb, a general in the French army, came to America to 
help the colonists. The people of South Carolina, loving his name, 
erected on Camden battle field a monument to honor his memory. 
Lafayette, his comrade in arms, laid the corner stone on his last visit 
to America (1824). 

85. In this battle Tarleton, in a hand-to-hand encounter with 
Colonel Washington, received a wound in the hand. He was not per- 
mitted to forget this. Tarleton remarked to some ladies that he had 
never had the pleasure of meeting Colonel Washington. It was sug- 
gested that if he had "only looked behind him at Cowpens he would 
have had that pleasure." On another occasion he said he understood 
that Washington was so ignorant that he could not even WTite. A 
lady replied : ' ' You bear the proof that he can at least make his mark . ' ' 

86. Greene was rewarded by his countrymen. Congress gave him 
a medal. South Carolina a sum of money, and Georgia a beautiful 
plantation. He was Washington's favorite general. 

87. The French king, according to the treaty (1778), sent a large 
army to America under Count Rochambeau. It was at Newport, 
Rhode Island. Washington called it to New York to join him in an 
attack on that city. But when the news reached Washington that a 
French fleet was coming to the Chesapeake, he changed his plan and 
started for Yorktown. 

88. Hanover is a German state over which the Georges of England 
ruled. 

89. How fortunate for America that her friends in England were 
again called to power! Besides Rockingham there were Shelburne 
and Camden, old friends of Lord Chatham, Richmond, who made the 
motion for independence in 1778, Grafton, Conway, and Cavendish. 



500 THE APPENDIX 

Burke was not given a place in the Cabinet, but he was the greatest 
defender of the treaty in the House of Commons. 

90. Washington certainly was a man who loved his country. He 
would not take a cent of pay for his services during the Revolution. 
Lafayette, too, gave his services to America without pay. 

91. But what they did was all very simple compared with the 
many things the stay-at-home people had to do in the World War 
(1918). 

92. Maryland was the last state to ratify the Articles. She had a 
good reason. She owned no western lands by which she could pay 
her soldiers. She held back until all western lands were given to the 
nation. 

93. Not only Congress, but the states issued millions of paper 
money. It took $100 in paper money to buy a pair of shoes (1781), 
and $1200 to purchase a cow. 

94. Washington had refused to go to Philadelphia as chairman of 
the Society of Cincinnati, which was to meet there. He said he could 
not very well go to this new convention. Some friends advised him 
to stay away. They did not want Washington's name connected with 
a failure! 

95. Washington was the greatest character in America. Franklin 
was the wisest man in the English-speaking world and the oldest man 
in the convention. Hamilton, a foreigner born in the West Indies and 
educated in King's College, was the youngest man but one in the con- 
vention, thirty years old. He wanted a stronger government than the 
one made. Madison was the best read man on the subjects to come 
before the convention. He was the author of the Virginia Plan which 
formed the basis of the Constitution. He made a shorthand report 
of the speeches, motions, and votes of the convention. Madison is 
called the Father of the Constitution. 

96. Among the opponents of the Constitution were some of the 
ablest men in the country: Elbridge Gerry, Samuel Adams, John 
Hancock, George Clinton, Richard Henry Lee, Patrick Henry, George 
Mason, and others. 

97. The small states were happy. They had been made equal to 
the larger states in the Senate. The Senate had been given unusual 
powers. It could accept or reject treaties, accept or reject the presi- 
dent's Cabinet, accept or reject any United States judge, and so on. 
When the election of a president was tlirown into the House, each state 
had one vote. 

98. Afterward these argtunents were gathered up and put in a 
book, which you may now buy under the name of the Federalist. 

99. The House now has 435 members, almost five times the number 
of senators. 

100. A growing demand has arisen for a president's term of six 
years with no reelection. The southern Confederacy had the six-year 
term for its president. 



THE APPENDIX 501 

101. The word "cabinet" is not in the Constitution, but is taken 
from the EngHsh government. The head of the EngHsh Cabinet is 
called the prime minister. He must choose the other members from 
Parliament. The prime minister and his Cabinet sit in Parliament, 
listen to the debates, take part in them, and vote on the bills, for they 
are members of Parliament. If the president were to choose a man 
from Congress for his Cabinet, this man would have to resign from Con- 
gress. The Cabinet presents most bills in Parliament. If Parliament 
should not agree with the Cabinet, the latter would have to resign at 
once. The president and his Cabinet do not introduce bills in Congress. 
If Congress and the president do not agree, no change takes place. 

102. A comparison of these first ten amendments with the English 
Bill of Rights will show why they are so called. 

103. The Maryland factory was owned by Englishmen. When 
they had to give it up, it was turned into a shop for making cannon 
balls, probably through the interest of the Washington family. 

104. Before this time, cotton was not raised much in the South. 

105. Washington had journeyed through parts of this wild region. 
He owned over 30,000 acres here. He was deeply interested in holding 
these western settlers in the new nation. 

106. Electors meet in their own states and vote for president. The 
Constitution (Art. II, §1, If 3) declared that the person receiving the 
most votes should be president and that the one having the next highest 
number should be vice-president. Amendment Twelve has changed this. 

107. The Cabinet now contains ten departments. Its growth into 
great departments and sub-departments is a fine illustration of the 
"Unwritten American Constitution." 

108. The agreement to pay the state debts raised great opposition, 
and the measure at first failed. But Jefferson and Hamilton put their 
heads together and agreed that if enough northern votes were given 
to locate the capital on the Potomac after 1800, enough southern 
votes would be given to pass the Assiunption Bill, as the bill for paying 
the debt of the states was called. 

109. Among others who were Federalists were Washington, 
John Adams, John Jay, and John Marshall. 

no. Among other Republicans we may name Madison, Clinton, 
Samuel Adams, and Albert Gallatin, a Swiss immigrant and a great 
financier. The names given to these parties were not used as they now 
are. The Federalists of Washington's time were more nearly like 
the Republicans of today, while the Republicans of Jefferson's day were 
more nearly like the Democrats of our time. 

III. This congress had not met for nearly two hundred years. 
It was called the "Estates General." You can think what it meant 
to the people of France, if you try to imagine what America would 
do without our Congress for so long a time. 

For a long time French kings and their nobles lived high and wasted 
the money collected as taxes in drinking, gambling, and feasting. 



502 THE APPENDIX 

But the common people were in poverty. Our Revolution against a 
tyrant king stirred the French people to greater action. They had 
welcomed our Benjamin Franklin, and we had warmly received their 
Lafayette. The great explosion came when the common people of 
Paris arose and stormed the Bastile (July 14, 1789). This was the 
great prison in which the king had shut men up for speaking against 
him and his government. Republican France now celebrates this 
day each year much as we do the Fourth of July. 

But in 1789 the French leaders of the Revolution had had but little 
experience in managing governments. They quarreled among them- 
selves, and the "Reign of Terror" soon followed. After the leaders 
had killed each other, Napoleon Bonaparte came to the front. He was 
the greatest soldier Evirope had ever seen. For over a dozen years 
his soldiers defeated all enemies and finally made him emperor of the 
French people. While Napoleon was a wise ruler in many ways, he 
was a selfish tyrant. 

112. America could not agree to this rule. If she did, no English- 
man could become an American. 

113. Napoleon remarked to some Americans: "Ah, gentlemen, 
.... the measure of his [Washington's] fame is full. Posterity 
will talk of him with reverence as the founder of a great empire, 
when my name will be lost in the vortex of revolutions." A monu- 
ment built in his memory, containing separate stones given by the 
great nations and by our states, stands 555 feet high in the city bear- 
ing his name. The home of his forefathers has been searched out in 
England and a tablet has been placed there in his honor. Both 
England and France have honored him with monuments. 

114. President Adams in his message to Congress called these men 
X, Y, and Z. Hence this is usually called the X. Y. Z. affair. 

115. Laws quite similar to the Alien and Sedition Laws were passed 
during Wilson's second administration. The danger was much 
greater in the World War, because there were more foreigners in 
America than in Adams' time. 

116. Congress resolved to have no more disputes over who was 
president. The Constitution was amended so that the electors are 
required to make two lists, One for president and another for \dce- 
president (Amendment XII). 

117. The capital had been at New York, then at Philadelphia for 
ten years, and was finally located in the new city of Washington. 
The last was a place chosen by Washington himself, and was then in 
the fields, where cows and hogs roamed at will and where wagons 
toiled through muddy and unpaved streets. 

Here it was that Jefferson established the custom of sending his 
message to Congress to be read. This custom ran until 1913, when 
President Wilson broke it by reading his message in person to Congress. 

1 18. Burr hated Hamilton and killed him in a duel (1804). Public 
sentiment was so hot against Burr that he became an outcast. He 



THE APPENDIX 503 

organized an expedition and floated down the Ohio and Mississippi 
to Natchez. Jefferson had him arrested for treason. He was tried 
and set free. 

119. This woman was called the "Bird Woman." 

120. John Randolph was one of the keenest and queerest men in 
the early days of the Republic. He was a descendant of Pocahontas. 
He was a leader of the Republicans in Congress and was a warm friend 
of Jefferson at first. Randolph was opposed to the Embargo and 
bitterly objected to the War of 181 2. 

121. The declaration of war was carried by only five votes in the 
Senate and by thirty in the House. 

122. Tecumseh was probably the greatest Indian statesman. He 
had high ideas. He would not allow the massacre of prisoners and 
denounced those who did. He was a noble orator. He visited 
General Harrison at Vincennes and pleaded for his people and for 
their hunting groimds. He traveled over the eastern Mississippi 
Valley, trying to form a grand league of Indian tribes to destroy the 
whites. He opposed the retreat of the British from the Northwest 
Territory. He told his warriors that the battle of the Thames would 
be his last. 

123. Canada and the United States have given a fine example to 
warring Europe of over a century of peace. It might be wise for our 
students to look at our neighbor's history during this time. We can 
recall that the English won Canada from the French and that these 
Canadians, though they were French, refused to join the Americans 
in the Revolutionary War. We also saw thousands of well-to-do 
Americans driven to Canada during our Revolution. 

After the war English settlers began moving to Canada. They 
settled in "Upper Canada" along the Great Lakes. The French 
Canadians occupied "Lower Canada." Quebec was their leading 
city. These two districts were separate but had the same governor, 
appointed by the king of England. Each had a legislature of its own. 
But in those days Frenchmen and Englishmen did not get on well. 
They quarreled, and then came fighting. The English government 
made peace between them by uniting Upper and Lower Canada, New 
Brunswick, and Nova Scotia under the name of the Dominion of 
Canada (1867). Since then people from England, the Continent, and 
from America have rushed into Canada by the thousands, and other 
states have been added to the Dominion. Canada now extends from 
the Atlantic to the Pacific. When the great World War broke out, 
Canadian boys were among the first to rush to the front (1914) in 
defense of the motherland. Hundreds of Americans joined them. 

124. The new bank, created by the Republicans, is a good illus- 
tration of how war changes the minds of men. During the war the 
country had only state banks, and these had caused the money of the 
United States to fall in value. The Republicans were wise enough 
to see the need of a national bank to regulate the money of the country. 



504 THE APPENDIX 

125. The early settlers helped each other in many ways. Besides 
"log rollings," there were house and barn raisings, and in the fall corn 
huskings or "shuckings." These all called for the gathering of neigh- 
bors for miles around. At the end of the day the old folks went home, 
but the younger ones usually remained for "fun and frolic." 

126. Rumsey on the Potomac, Fitch on the Delaware, and Long- 
street on the Savannah had each invented a steamboat before Fulton 
did. But in a sense they were failures. In England Fulton met 
Watt, inventor of the steam engine. He aided Watt in building an 
engine. He went to France and built a boat with an engine to make 
it go. The trials proved Fulton correct. He got his engine for the 
"Clermont" from Watt and Boulton. Fulton took the "Clermont" 
out of the river, covered her with a deck, built two cabins with 
berths, and changed her name to the "North River." 

It is interesting to note that Nicholas Roosevelt and other men in 
New York built a steamboat in 181 1 at Pittsburgh. Boats of a some- 
what different kind were soon put on the Great Lakes, and after the 
Erie Canal was finished one could travel from New York to northern 
Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, and Wisconsin by water. 

127. Scarcely less important has been the effect of the canal on 
Lockport, Batavia, Oneida, Rome, Herkimer, Little Falls, Amsterdam, 
Cohoes, and Troy, to say nothing of other enterprising places. New 
York voted $100,000,000 (1903) to make the canal into a "barge" 
canal and added $27,000,000 to this in 1915. The canal was used by 
the national government to carry war freight to New York (191 8) and 
thus relieve the railroads. 

128. The greatest fun for the boys came when the mill pond was to 
be drained. Farmers made up small parties with seines from fifty to 
one hundred yards long. It was rare sport when some one had to 
draw his end of the seine through water over his head or when the 
alarmed bass jumped over the top of the seine and escaped. 

129. No American is better remembered in South America than 
Henry Clay. He worked hard, as secretary of state, to aid the South 
Americans in getting their independence. 

130. John Quincy Adams was brought up under the teachings of 
Washington and Jefferson that we should keep out of European quar- 
rels. He was a son of John Adams and had been to Europe. He had 
favored the Embargo and had opposed New England's attitude toward 
the War of 181 2. The Republicans took him up and sent him to help 
make the Treaty of Ghent. He returned and was appointed secretary 
of state by Mom-oe. 

131. One elector voted against Monroe because he wished Wash- 
ington to be the only president who received a unanimous vote for 
that high office. 

132. Another proof of the "era of good feeling" was that Adams 
and Jefferson had renewed their friendship and were once more engaged 
in exchanging friendly letters as of old. They both died just fifty 



THE APPENDIX 5°5 

years after independence had been declared — the one at Quincy, 
Massachusetts, July 4, 1826, the other at Monticello, Virginia, on the 
same day. 

133- The bank had been chartered in 1 816 for twenty years with a 
capital of $35,000,000. It had its branches in all the main cities. 
When Jackson made war on the bank, it went into politics and tried 
to help elect Clay. This was a mistake, for it made many votes for 
Jackson. 

134. By i860 four million foreign-born people had foiind homes 
in the United States. Only four hundred thousand of these were in 
the South, and more than half of these were in Maryland and Missouri. 

135. One of the most distinguished sons of Gennany driven to 
America for his part in the Revolution of 1848 was Carl Schurz. He 
escaped from a German prison and came to America. He rose 
rapidly, was a warm friend of Lincoln's, and became a general in the 
Civil War. He was a member of the Cabinet of President Hayes and 
became prominent as a civil service reformer. 

136. From 1845 to 1847 Ireland suffered a terrible famine because 
of the failure of her potato crop. Thousands died of starvation in 
spite of food shipped in from England and the United States. From 
1840 to i860 over 1,700,000 Irish migrated to America. 

137. Henry Barnard was made United States commissioner of 
education in 1867. 

138. In that day there was little room for women outside the home. 
It was pointed out that this school was preparing young women to 
take their place in the family in a proper manner. 

139. The "jerks," a sort of nervous twitching of the body, some- 
times took hold of the head and made its motions very rapid. Again 
persons fell upon the ground or made other strange motions, show- 
ing that they were deeply and strangely affected by the preaching. 
The "jerks" seemed to get hold of all classes of persons, even those 
who went to the meetings in a spirit of fun. It is interesting to note 
that a preacher in a southern city has in this day, November 15, 1919, 
complained to the poUce that persons so affected are breaking up his 
meetings by alarming others so that they leave the meetings. 

140. Cyrus H. McCormick lived in the Shenandoah Valley. His 
father had tried to invent a reaper, and the son kept at it until suc- 
cessful. His neighbors smiled at him for wasting his time. He built 
a shop in Cincinnati but finally located in Chicago, the center of wheat- 
growing on the prairies. Here there were no stumps in the wheat 
fields. He took his reaper to the World's Fair in London (1851). 
He kept on improving his machines, and today they are sold wherever 
wheat is grown. 

141. Howe, rather an exception, made himself well-to-do by the 
invention of the sewing machine. Since the first machine great changes 
have made the machine more perfect. Outside of the home it is used 
for making all sorts of articles of cloth and leather. 



5o6 THE APPENDIX 

142. Alorse was born in 1791. After finishing at Yale he i?went to 
England. As he came home the idea came to him of sending news by 
electricity. He worked hard on his invention, aided by two mechan- 
ics, Vail and Baxter. On three miles of wire, strung around his 
shop, Morse sent this message: "A patient waiter is no loser" (1838). 
They hastened the invention to Congress, for Morse was a poor man. 
Members of Congress made fun of the invention. He went home 
discouraged at ten o'clock, March 3, 1843. He had no money to pay 
his board bill. That very night Congress voted him money. 

143. The tariff of 1816 was favored and opposed by congressmen 
from all sections. The South gradually saw that the negro could not 
safely handle the machinery of a cotton mill. Besides, the planter 
had his money in slaves and lands and could not change easily to the 
business of running a factory. 

144. Calhoun and Clay taunted each other over the situation, each 
claiming the victory. Calhoun declared that he forced the Federal 
government to back down from its high protective tariff policy, of 
which Clay had been the great defender. Clay declared that he had 
saved Calhoun's neck from Jackson's halter. 

145. The Democrats had three vote-catching cries. For the South 
they called for the " reannexation of Texas." The United States had 
dropped her claim to Texas as a part of Loviisiana, when Monroe 
purchased Florida (181 9). For the North the cry was, "Fifty-four 
forty or fight." This was to be the northern boundary line of the 
Oregon region, but the Democrats accepted the line of 49°. This 
campaign cry was intended to raise the enthusiasm of northern voters. 
It succeeded, but the President did not carry out the threat of 
"Fifty-four forty or fight" and "All Oregon or none." The Whigs 
blamed Birney for the defeat of Clay. They insisted that the anti- 
slavery Whigs in New York supported Birney in the election, thus 
giving that state to Polk. 

146. Abraham Lincoln, who had been in Congress but one term, 
introduced his famous "spot" resolution calling on President Polk 
to point out the "particular spot where American blood had been 
shed on American soil." Lincoln hoped by this resolution to call 
the attention of the country to the fact that the "spot" was in the 
disputed territory. 

147. The bill was so named from David Wilmot, a Democrat from 
Pennsylvania, who introduced it. 

148. New Yorkers were again blamed for the election. This time 
the Democrats blamed the Free-soil Democrats for voting for Martin 
Van Buren, thus giving the state to Taylor. 

149. President Taylor was a slaveholder, but it is said that Senator 
Seward was his chief advisor. Taylor took a soldier's view of the 
trouble the settlers in California were having with lawless persons, 
so he favored its admission as a state. He died in office and was 
succeeded by Vice-President Millard Fillmore of New York. 



THE APPENDIX 507 

150. Calhoun was an able man. Even before the War of 181 2, he 
stood out as a great leader. Now (1850) he was the leader of the 
states' rights party in the" nation. He died in 1850. 

151. These routes ran from "Mason and Dixon's Line" through 
Pennsylvania, New York, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, and Iowa. 

152. A number of the rescues were most exciting. A Boston mob 
took "Shadrack," a negro, from the officers of the law. At Syracuse 
a crowd gathered and seized "Jerry " while he was being tried. Other 
men along the border made it a business to "hunt" slaves for the 
officers. 

153. Douglas declared that on his way from New York to Chicago 
he could read his newspaper by the light of his own burning effigy. 
The Missouri Compromise had stood for over thirty years. It was 
almost as sacred as the Constitution. To the North its repeal 
seemed like tearing up the foundations of the government itself. 

154. Lincoln had been preparing this speech for some time. He 
showed it to friends and asked their advice. " Don't put that in your 
speech," said his friends. "If you do, Douglas will beat you." To 
which Lincoln replied: "I would rather be defeated with that in 
my speech than win with it out of my speech." 

Douglas had met and had defeated the best debaters in Congress. 
He told them, when asked about Lincoln, that he would rather meet 
any of them in debate than Lincoln." 

It was at Freeport, Illinois, where Lincoln, though opening and clos- 
ing the debate, put the fatal questions to Douglas. The night before, 
he had met Republican leaders and had showed them the questions. 
Again they advised him against using them. "Douglas will surely 
win, if you do," they said. "I am gunning for bigger game. If 
Douglas answers as you say he will, he can never be president," he 
replied. 

After the debates were over he wrote to a friend: "I am glad I 
made the late race. It gave me a hearing on the great question of 
the age Though I now sink out of view and shall be for- 
gotten, I believe I have made some marks which will tell for the cause 
of liberty long after I am gone." 

155. Lincoln had expressed the same idea in his "house-divdded- 
against-itself " speech, but in milder terms. In the fall of the same 
year, at Rochester, Seward had declared that the two sections are 
engaged in an "irrepressible conflict " which must result in the country 
becoming all slave or all free. This gave offense to southern leaders. 

156. On Washington's birthday in Philadelphia, in the presence of 
a vast crowd, Lincoln raised the Stars and Stripes over Independence 
Hall. As he did so, he said: " I have never had a feeling, politically, 
which did not spring from the Declaration of Independence." 

157. Shortly after the call for men Douglas, with Lincoln's knowl- 
edge, made a trip to the Middle West to stir the patriotism of that 
region. He spoke twice in Ohio and then hastened to Springfield, 



So8 THE APPENDIX 

Lincoln's own town, and received a great ovation at the hands of the 
Republican legislature. He made them a rousing union speech. 
He hastened to his own home, Chicago, and in the building where 
Lincoln had been nominated he made another patriotic speech. He 
was overworked and in a few days was dead. Lincoln and the Union 
lost a great champion. 

158. Robert E. Lee was a "Virginia cavalier" by birth, education, 
and character. His father was a famous cavalry officer in the Revolu- 
tion, "Light Horse Harry " Lee. Robert went to West Point, where he 
distinguished himself as a student. He won name and fame in the 
Mexican War. He was called to be the head of West Point, where he 
made many changes for the good of the school. He was a Union 
man and was opposed to secession, but, like many Southern men, felt 
he must go with his state. To the man Lincoln sent to offer him the 
command of the Union armies, Lee replied: "How can I take part 
against my relatives, my children, and my home? " 

159. In the battle of Bull Run, when it looked like a Federal vic- 
tory, Confederate General Bee called to his retreating men: "There 
stands Jackson like a stone wall." "Stonewall" Jackson, as his 
soldiers loved to call him, became, next to Lee, the greatest general 
of the Confederacy. 

160. General Johnston was a noble man. Just before he was shot 
he had sent his surgeon to care for"wounded Union prisoners. Johnston 
bled to death before his surgeon returned. 

161. The simple faith of the northern farmer in Lincoln is seen in 
the remarks of one of them who came from the South, too. "The 
slaveholder now has no one to blame but himself. Did not ' Old Abe ' 
promise them that if they would come back into the Union they and 
their property would be protected?" 

162. Jackson was a poor boy and was raised by relatives. He 
walked to Washington to get his appointment to West Point. He 
was in the Mexican War and became a professor in a Virginia military 
school. He was a sternly religious man and, like Cromwell, prayed 
for success. 

His soldiers idolized him, although he drove them hard. He was a 
great general. Lee said, when he heard of his death: "I have lost 
my right arm." 

163. Gettysburg was the place made immortal in 1864 by being 
dedicated as a national cemetery, and by being the place where 
Lincoln, before the great men of the nation, read his most famous writ- 
ing, "the Gettysburg Address." Just fifty years after the battle, and 
after both North and South had built many monuments to their dead, 
a great reunion of the Confederate and Union veterans was held on the 
Gettysburg battle field. This reunion was proof to the world that the 
brave men who wore the Blue and the Gray were one. 

164. The most dangerous opponent of the war in Congress was one 
Vallandigham. He tried to prevent boys from joining the army and 



THE APPENDIX 509 

to induce them to desert when once they had enhsted. He was 
arrested and imprisoned. But Lincoln finally sent him, as a sort of 
logical joke, into the Confederacy, so that he might be with his friends. 
He escaped and finally got back home. 

165. One day a soldier was taking Lincoln through the hospitals. 
Lincoln talked with the men in the most friendly way about their 
condition, their homes, their mothers, wives, and sweethearts. When 
passing through the rooms the soldier said to Lincoln that he need 
not go into the next room since they were only rebels in there. Lincoln 
stopped, put a friendly hand upon the boy's shoulder, and said: "You 
mean Confederates!" The soldier says that he meant Confederates 
ever after. He could see no difference in Lincoln's treatment of the 
Blue and the Gray. 

166. Grant was born in Ohio and went to West Point, where his 
record was only fair. He was in the Mexican War. After the war he 
resigned and went into the real estate business, but failed. He went to 
Galena, Illinois, and went into business with his brother. When the 
Civil War broke out, the governor of Illinois "discovered " him and put 
him to training soldiers. To discipline a company, it is told that he 
made the men carry rails upon their shoulders for a long distance. At 

. the capture of Fort Donelson he made his name famous by replying to 
the request for terms : " Unconditional surrender. " He was nicknamed 
"Unconditional Surrender " Grant. When meeting awful losses in the 
Wilderness, he sent this dispatch to Washington: " I propose to fight 
it out on this line if it takes all summer." After the war he was 
made president. After his second term he went around the world. 
His friends tried to make him president a third time, but Washington's 
example was too powerful. He wrote his Memoirs while battling 
against death. He lies buried in New York City in a spot overlooking 
the Hudson. 

167. Sherman was born in Ohio. He went to West Point. He was 
teaching in the South when secession came. He made himself unpopu- 
lar in the North by stating that the South meant to fight and fight 
hard. Grant and Sherman became warm friends. Sherman was 
probably the greatest strategist in the northern army. 

168. General Joseph E. Johnston was a brave man. He had been 
at West Point, in the Mexican War, and was head of the Confederates 
at Fair Oaks. Here he was wounded. He was helping Pemberton 
at Vicksburg. Johnston was given command in Bragg's place. He 
and Sherman played a great game at strategy, but Johnston had to 
retreat for lack of men. It is hard to understand why Davis should 
have removed him for following Lee's plan of fighting. 

169. Thomas, bom in Virginia, did not "go with his state." He 
had been to West Point and in the Mexican War. He saved the day 
at Murfreesboro and at Chickamauga and storined Missionary Ridge 
for Grant. He was a bit slow but sure. Thomas disturbed both 
Lincoln and Grant. Grant ordered his dismissal but took it back. 



Sio THE APPENDIX 

Thomas destroyed Hood's army. The plan of the battle of Franklin 
is said to be the only battle of the Civil War studied in European 
textbooks on war. His boys loved to call him "Pap" Thomas. 

1 70. The World War resulted differently. Not so many men died of 
disease, owing to new and better ways of taking care of drinking water, 
cooking, drainage of camps, and the curing of sickness. The work, 
too, of surgeons in caring for the wounded was not less marvellous. 

171. The invasion of Pennsylvania by Lee's army was in no sense 
a "raid," but was the regular movement of a great army. 

172. These were called "vagrancy laws." They required all able- 
bodied negroes to work. But many were enjoying their new-found 
liberty too much to work. The South feared they would become 
idle and dangerous. If they refused to work, they could be arrested 
and put to work for some white man. Their children could be "bound 
out " until a given age was reached. ' 

173. The bitter feeling aroused by this trial is hard for us to under- 
stand in this day. The few Republicans voting for Johnson were 
treated shamefully. Some were accused of being bought, others of 
being traitors to their party. Most of them were driven from their 
party. Very few were ever permitted to hold office again. 

174. Talking over old questions such as the doings of the Ku-Klux 
came in campaign years. People opposed to discussing "southern 
outrages" called such discussions "waving the bloody shirt." 

175. Greeley was a most interesting figure. He frequently gave 
the advice, it is said: "Go West, young man, and grow up with the 
country." The Tribune, of which he was editor, was a mighty force 
in bringing on the war. But Greeley signed the bail bond of Jefferson 
Davis and was opposed to "congressional reconstruction." In the 
campaign "everybody went to hear him, but nobody voted for him." 
The rejoicing of the Republicans at his defeat was hardly over when 
the news came that his defeat, joined to family sorrow, had sent him 
to his grave. 

176. About every twenty years this country has had hard times, or 
a "panic." Not all these have been equally hard. The years in 
which they have occurred are 1819, 1837, 1857, 1873, and 1893. 

177. Tweed was, for a long time, the head of a body of politicians 
who could not be touched by public opinion, because, it was said, his 
supporters did not read the newspapers. But Thomas Nast, in 
Harper's Weekly, began to make pictures about them. Everybody 
could understand these pictures. The result was that Tweed was 
driven from power and finally put in prison. 

178. No little credit is due to Tilden, for he urged his followers to 
accept the decision and not appeal to force, as had been threatened. 
This they did and settled down like good Americans to obey the laws, 
although every Democrat felt that Tilden had been "cheated out of 
the election." Congress and the country did not want any more dis- 
puted elections, so laws were passed to prevent such. 



THE APPENDIX 511 

179. One of the strongest arguments for the civil service was that 
the system of examinations had worked out well in Europe, especially 
in England. 

180. One danger from having more paper money in the country 
than gold was just this fact of high prices. It took more greenbacks 
to pay for a day's work or for a bushel of wheat or corn than it did 
gold. In other words, the rich man with his gold could buy more for 
a gold dollar than the poor man could buy with his greenbacks. 

181. Louisiana was a sugar-producing state and did not want to 
have to compete with sugar producers from other countries. 

182. This act was called "the crime of '73 " by the silver people. 

183. During the debate in Congress one senator talked for fourteen 
hours against repeal. Nevertheless, the law was repealed. 

184. Dawson and Klondike City sprang into existence as the result 
of the gold rush. A traveler who visited Dawson in 1898 says that 
four loaves of bread sold for a dollar and that the newspapers cost 
fifty cents a copy. 

185. Copper, also, is mined in large quantities. Both hard and soft 
coal are found in Alaska. The government is building a railroad 
to the coal fields. 

186. Fifty-two foreign countries had exhibits. It was a real world's 
fair. The exhibits were grouped in fifteen classes, such as agriculture, 
mines, manufactures, electricity, and education. There were 158 
acres of buildings, some of them so big that the visitor felt lost in them. 
The largest was the Manufactures and Liberal Arts building that 
covered 30X acres. During the time the fair was open there were 
27,500,000 admissions. 

187. The Democratic convention was held in Chicago. Bryan 
made a speech that won him the nomination. Speaking to the advo- 
cates of a gold standard, he said, "You shall not press down upon the 
brow of labor this crown of thorns; you shall not crucify mankind upon 
a cross of gold." The speech became famous. 

188. The annual product rose from 5,000,000 ounces in 1886 to 
12,300,000 ounces in 1900. This met the demand of the Democrats 
for more money and took the strength out of the "free silver" argu- 
ment. 

189. Roosevelt, as a boy, had a weak body, but he made himself 
strong by outdoor life and exercise. He was an athlete, a great hunter, 
and an explorer. He wrote several interesting books about his trips. 

For a time Roosevelt lived as a ranchman in the West. He had 
many adventures with rough men and wild animals but was always 
able to take care of himself. 

190. The battle of Mukden was the greatest battle of the war. It 
was a victory for the Japanese. During this battle Marquis Oyama, 
commander-in-chief of the Japanese forces, directed the fighting on 
forty miles of front from a spot miles in the rear of the line. He did 
it by telephone. 



512 THE APPENDIX 

191. In 1906 Roosevelt received the Nobel Peace Prize. This is a 
reward of about $50,000 given to the person who does most during any 
year to bring about peace between nations. Roosevelt gave all of 
the money to good causes. 

192. Among the Hawaiian Islands is a colony of lepers. Leprosy 
cannot be cured. The leper, young or old, must die. Who but Presi- 
dent Roosevelt would have thought to order the American fleet, when 
sailing near the lepers' island, to fire a salute? The mighty guns of 
that fleet awoke memories in the hearts of the lepers never to be 
forgotten. The lepers raised money for the Roosevelt National 
Memorial. Not only so, but they dedicated in their own mountain 
home a Roosevelt Memorial Children's Park. 

193. An example of the wasting of natural resources is found in the 
way natural gas was allowed to flow unchecked for some years. In 
Indiana, Ohio, and Pennsylvania people set fire to the escaping gas 
and let it burn. At night, mile after mile of countryside was lighted 
up in this way. Today these same gas fields are nearly exhausted. 

194. The forest rangers are now aided in their work by regular 
airplane patrols over the forests. These watch for fires and report 
them to the fire-fighters. In 191 8 there were over five thousand 
fires in the national parks. 

195. The Elephant Butte Dam on the Rio Grande in New Mexico 
is the largest government irrigation project. The dam is 305 feet 
high and 13 10 feet long. It forms a lake that covers 40,000 acres. It 
is capable of watering 183,000 acres of crops. Other great irrigation 
projects are the Roosevelt Dam in Arizona and the Shoshone Dam 
in Wyoming. 

Altogether about 15,000,000 acres have been reclaimed from the 
desert. This work is in charge of the Reclamation Service. 

196. President Taft later made a speech at Winona, Minnesota, in 
which he pronounced the Payne-Aldrich tariff "the best the country 
ever had." This was very offensive to the western Repubhcans who 
had opposed the bill. They took it to mean that Taft was trying to 
force them out of the party. 

197. After seeing Taft safely inaugurated, Roosevelt left for Africa 
on a hunting trip that lasted over a year. On his return he found Taft 
engaged in a quarrel with the progressive Republicans and the party 
threatened with a serious split. 

198. Elihu Root was chairman of the convention. Aided by the 
National Committee, he succeeded in keeping the Roosevelt delegates 
out of the convention. This system was called the "steam roller." 

199. Wilson had been president of Princeton University after being 
a teacher in the same institution. He wrote extensively on the govern- 
ment and history of the United States. As governor of New Jersey 
he secured progressive legislation. 

200. Many small high-power boats were engaged in the filibustering 
trade with the Cuban insurgents. They would take on board a load 



THE APPENDIX 513 

of ammunition and arms in some port in Florida. Then on a dark 
night they would slip out of the harbor. The morning would find them 
off the Cuban coast unloading their precious cargo for the Cubans. 

201. In 191 1 the "Maine" was raised. The condition of the hull 
showed that the explosion came from the outside. Just who was 
responsible has never been determined. 

202. "Remember the Maine" became the battle-cry of the Ameri- 
cans. It makes us think of "Remember the Alamo." 

203. When the fleet was about two miles from the forts, Admiral 
Dewey turned to the captain of the ship and said quietly, "When you 
are ready, you may fire, Gridley." The reply was the thundering 
report of two long, eight-inch guns in the turrets of the "Olympia." 
The battle had begun. 

204. Leonard Wood had started army life as a surgeon. He won 
fame by capturing the savage Apache chief, Geronimo. From 1899 
to 1903 he was military governor of Cuba. He began many reforms. 

205. The "Maria Teresa," badly cut up by shells and in flames 
from end to end, ran on shore. As the "Texas" passed the Spanish 
ship the American tars began to cheer. But Captain Philip, seeing 
the burning and drowning Spaniards, turned to his men and said: 
"Don't cheer. The poor devils are dying." 

206. The Panama railroad was built between 1850 and 1855. It 
earned big sums of money in its early days. The government now 
owns it. 

207. Roosevelt was criticized for recognizing the republic so 
quickly- — ^he waited only three days. It was even charged by his 
opponents that he started the revolution and that he sent troops to 
help the revolutionists. 

208. Distances saved by the canal are as follows: San Francisco 
to New York, 7,873 miles; New York to Valparaiso, 3,823 miles; San 
Francisco to Para, 5,2 10 miles; Liverpool to San Francisco, 5,465 miles. 

209. The famous Captain Cook discovered these islands in 1778 
and named them the Sandwich Islands. The first American missiona- 
ries arrived in 1820. Some of the greatest volcanoes in the world 
are found here. The country was organized as a territory in 1900. 

210. This affair was the beginning of movements in China that have 
driven the old rulers from the throne. After much disturbance the 
Chinese Republic was proclaimed in 1910. Japan seems determined 
to get control of the country, but the United States stands for the 
"open door." 

211. The native children are taught the English language in the 
schools. Over six hundred thousand children were in school in 191 7. 

212. In 191 2 Great Britain, United States, Russia, and Japan 
agreed to cut ofT seal hunting in the open sea for fifteen years. This 
was to give the seal herds a chance to grow in numbers. 

213. Diaz gave Mexico peace and prosperity. His methods were 
so harsh, however, that there was constant danger of revolution. 

18 



514^ THE APPENDIX 

214. The meeting of the delegates was held at Niagara Falls. 

215. Henry Clay is regarded by South Americans as their greatest 
friend among American statesmen. In 181 7 he favored recognizing 
the independence of the South American states. When he was secre- 
tary of state under John Quincy Adams, he tried to bring about a close 
relation with South America. 

216. There have been six years since 1900 when more than a 
million immigrants arrived. In 19 10, 14.7 per cent of our population 
were foreign-born. In 1 910 in nine American cities over half of the 
males of voting age were foreign-born. 

217. No naturalized person can become president or vice-president. 
Filipinos may be naturaUzed in two years after coming to the United 
States. Nine states allow the immigrant to vote if he declares his 
intention to become a citizen. 

218. In 1916 there were 3,157 strikes. Of these, 1,031 were to get 
higher wages. 

219. Forty disputes were settled by the Erdman Act and sixty -one 
disputes by the Newlands Act. 

220. The census says there are about two million children from 
ten to fifteen years of age in the country who are engaged in gainful 
occupations. About one-fourth of them are working in factories. 

221. In the same year over twenty-six hundi-ed coal miners were 
killed. In 1913 over two million workmen were injured. 

222. In most states the injured workingman can receive as high as 
50 or 60 per cent of his weekly wage, but not more. 

223. Some states grant compensation for sickness caused by 
"occupational" diseases. These are diseases which come to workers 
in occupations like lead and brass working, or occupations that use 
wood alcohol, varnish, arsenic, or mercury. 

224. Some men who have brought about this result were Cornelius 
Vanderbilt, George Gould, James J. Hill, and E. H. Harriman. 

225. In some places voting machines are used. 

226. In most cities the city council has only one house or body. 
In a few there are an upper and a lower house. Usually the number 
of members is from ten to twenty, but Philadelphia has 132 in her two 
houses. 

227. From 1911 to 1920 Mexico was overrun by bandits and 
desperadoes of all kinds. They murdered and robbed right and left, 
Mexicans as well as other people. It will be a long time before Mexico 
recovers from the effect of their evil deeds. 

228. The largest city is Charlotte Amalie on Saint Thomas. It has 
a fine harbor. 

229. French-Canadian fur traders made the first settlements. In 
1 8 ID Lord Selkirk built a fort near Pembina. One of the greatest gold 
mines in the world, the Homestake mine, is in the Black Hills. Gold 
was first discovered in this district in 1874 by one of Custer's soldiers. 
Gold hunters rushed into the region, and Indian troubles followed. 



THE APPENDIX 515 

230. Lewis and Clark were the first white men to visit this region. 
Idaho leads all other states in lead mining. 

231. Kit Carson, the famous scout and Indian fighter, lived in the 
old Mexican town of Taos. Dates from 1582 to 1605 are given for 
the founding of Santa Fe. 

232. Sitting Bull was helped in this battle by the Cheyenne chief, 
Rain-in-the-Face, with a thousand warriors. Custer's body was the 
only one not disfigured by the Indians. 

233. Kindergartens were first started in Germany by Froebel. 

234. Some high schools, like those in New York City, have as many 
as five thousand pupils. In many the pupils have debating and literary 
societies, and football, baseball, and basket-ball teams. They also have 
bands and orchestras and run their own school papers. Many have 
fine gymnasiums, athletic fields, and swimming pools. 

235. In some states the principal of the rural high school lives near 
the school building in a house provided by the school district. He 
thus becomes a real member of the community and can act as a leader 
out of the School as well as in it. 

236. Samuel Hall opened the first normal school at Concord, Ver- 
mont, 1823. Massachusetts was the first state to start public normal 
schools. James G. Carter, Charles Brooks, and Horace Mann helped 
in the movement. 

237. In several middle western states like Minnesota, Illinois, and 
Wisconsin, the state universities have more than five thousand stu- 
dents each. 

Columbia University in New York City is the biggest imiversity in 
America. In 191 7 it had over seventeen thousand students. 

238. Some of these colleges founded by churches are Denison Uni- 
versity in Ohio, DePauw University in Indiana, and Illinois College 
in Illinois. In the early days these colleges expected each student to 
work about half of each school day on a farm so as to earn his college 
education. This was a great help to poor boys. 

239. In 1910 not one per cent of workers on farms or in factories 
had any training in school for the work. It has been shown that girls 
with vocational training earn twice as much as those without training. 

240. Mark Twain was a Missouri boy. He never went to school 
very much, but worked in a printer's shop, learned to be a pilot on a 
Mississippi River steamboat, and tried his hand at gold mining. He 
traveled extensively and at last settled down to write books. As an 
author he was a very great success. 

241. Riley was an Indiana boy. Unlike Twain, he had a fair school 
education. For some years he roamed the Ohio Valley, earning his 
living as a sign painter. Later, he began to work on a newspaper and 
to write poetry. After a while he was ranked as one of our leading 
poets. The schoolboys and girls of Indiana celebrate "Riley Day" 
every year on his birthday, October 7. 

242. Eggleston also wrote historical works of much merit. 



5i6 THE APPENDIX 

243. Wisconsin is Hamlin Garland's home state. He taught school 
for a while and afterward became a lecturer. He has written both 
prose and poetry. 

244. Davis was a great traveler. Whenever a war was going on 
anywhere in the world, Davis was sure to be there. He was not fight- 
ing, but was reporting the war for big newspapers. He wrote some 
fine adventure stories. 

245. 0. Henry (William Sydney Porter) was a North Carolina boy 
who spent some time on a Texas cattle ranch. He went to Central 
America and became a banana grower, but failed in this business. 
He returned to the United States and began writing stories, finally 
moving to New York City. He ranks very high as a short-story writer. 

246. Andrew Carnegie came to the tjnited States from Scotland 
when he was ten years old, a poor immigrant boy. He began work 
in a cotton mill at 20 cents a day. His honesty, quickness, and devo- 
tion to duty led him from one position to another. He learned teleg- 
raphy and had charge of the eastern military railroads and telegraph 
lines during the Civil War. All this time he was saving his money. 
He brought the Bessemer process of steel-making to this country from 
England and began to make steel. He built up this business until the 
Carnegie Steel Company became the biggest in the country. In 1901 
he sold his interests and retired, one of the richest men in the world. 

Mr. Carnegie believed that he should use his great wealth to make 
the world a better place. So he gave away great sums of money 
to good causes. He gave money to help colleges and universities. He 
gave $10,000,000 to help on peace between nations; he founded many 
libraries. It is said that he gave away altogether over $300,000,000. 

247. In 1920 cotton was exported to the value of $1,136,000,000 and 
meat to the value of $368,000,000. 

248. The value of the exported manufactured goods in 1920 was 
over $3,800,000,000. 

249. South American merchants usually wanted long-time credit. 
They also wanted their imports packed in certain ways. The Ameri- 
can manufacturers did not pay much attention to these ideas of the 
South American buyers. The result was that many a South American 
merchant gave one order to some firm in the United States and after 
that gave his business to Germany or England, whose manufacturers 
were more accommodating and careful. 

250. All owr coastwise and lake commerce is carried in American 
ships. It is the biggest coastwise commerce in the world, 

251. During the World War we had 341 shipyards building ships. 
Some of these ships were of wood, some of steel, and some of concrete. 

252. Every living thing has to fight against germs. Many dis- 
eases of people, such as tuberculosis, typhoid, and pneumonia, are 
caused by them. Among plants smut and rust, apple scab, and pear 
blight are germ diseases. Farm animals suffer from tuberculosis, 
tetanus, and cholera. 



THE APPENDIX ^i^ 

253. The average value of the machinery on each farm of the cotm- 
tiy is about $1,000. 

254. The rural truck stopping daily at the farmer's gate reminds 
some of us of the "old-fashioned marketer." He drove a two-horse 
wagon and came each week. His coming was made known by blow- 
ing a bugle. He made his way to every countryside over the worst 
of roads. He took orders for next week's delivery. But the auto 
and the truck are taking his place. 

255. Elevators used to be built of wood, brick, or iron. Many 
are now made of concrete. The largest concrete grain elevator in the 
world belongs to the Armour Grain Company and is in Chicago. It 
can hold 4,383,000 bushels of wheat. 

256. One of the best things the Department of Agricultxire is doing 
is getting the covmty agent system started. The county agent is a 
farm expert who advises the farmers about their work, telling them 
how to use the best methods, answering their questions, and helping 
them in their buying and selling. He helps them to organize agri- 
cultural clubs. 

257. Making the machines is itself a big business. There are about 
ten thousand shops in the country making machines. The largest 
group is the one making farm machinery. 

258. Birmingham has grown up in the last thirty years. Iron and 
coal have made it. It is built partly upon the slope of a moiintain 
of iron ore. 

259. Refrigerator cars were first used between Chicago and New 
York City. Ice is put in at each end of the car and a blower drives 
the cold air through the car. 

260. Special kinds of steel steamers are built to carry iron ore, coal, 
and grain. These boats carry about 80,000,000 tons of cargo through 
the "Soo" Canal in a year. This is several times as much as passes 
through the Suez Canal in the same time. The canal was opened in 
1855 and has been much enlarged since then. At lake ports like Toledo 
and Cleveland there are huge machines that pick up a whole freight 
car and dump its load of coal into the waiting ship. 

261. Other inventors and their inventions are Bell, the telephone; 
Goodyear, the welt machine for sewing soles on shoes; Robinson, block 
signals for railways; Brush, the arc electric light; Patterson, the cash 
register; Burroughs, the recording adding machine; Thomson, electric 
welding; Hardy, the disk plow; and Lewis, the machine gun. 

262. The " Lusitania " had left New York bound for England. She 
was sailing along the coast of Ireland. Her passengers were happy in 
the thought that they would soon see their loved ones and friends. 
Suddenly she was struck by a torpedo shot from a German submarine, 
then another, and the ship went down in twenty minutes with all on 
board, more than twelve hundred. This was not war, but was pretty 
close to murder. The whole world shuddered at the news, but Ger- 
many struck medals in honor of the event. 



Si8 THE APPENDIX 

263. Theodore Roosevelt was one of the most active in demanding 
that America prepare for war. He had offered to take command of a 
volunteer force and go to France. But permission was refused him. 

264. The Kaiser was king of Prussia and emperor of Germany. 
He often dashed along the streets of Berlin on horseback at the head 
of his soldiers, or rode with his wife in the royal carriage. People 
gathered in great crowds on both sides of the street to see him pass. 
When ha came everybody raised his hat. If anyone failed to do this, 
a policeman might ask him to do so. The Kaiser's picture hung in a 
prominent place in every public school. 

265. One of the most interesting facts of the war was the great 
numbers of school boys and girls who took part in so many efforts 
to help win the war. They did noble service in helping raise money 
and in going, in great numbers, to aid the farmers. The girls were 
called "farmerettes." Those who remained at home, both old and 
young, added greatly to our food supplies by making gardens by the 
thousands. 

266. The German government carried on "propaganda" not only 
in America, but in Germany as well. It taught its own people to 
believe that Americans were only money-getters and would not fight. 
It said that it would take years for us to make an army; that even 
if we did, their submarines would never permit it to sail for Europe. 
But when a million men stormed the Argonne Forest and shattered the 
German line, the Germans felt their government had deceived them. 

267. When General Pershing heard General Foch had been given 
command of all the Allied forces he went to him and said: " Infantry, 
artillery, aviation, all that we have, are yours to dispose of as you will." 

268. When we began building steel ships not a shipyard in the 
world but required from six to twelve months to launch a vessel. 
But America put one in the water in ninety days. Then came one 
in eighty days. The Pacific Coast yards then reduced the time to 
sixty-six days, and finally to fifty-five days. This record aroused 
the Atlantic Coast builders and they announced that they would 
take only twenty-seven days, four hours, and fifty minutes to build 
one. It took one hour and forty minutes less! This certainly was 
a bad day for the Kaiser. 

269. Did you ever see the cartoon: "Go Tell It to the Marines"? 
So grateful were the French for the splendid work of oiu: marines in 
capturing Belleau Wood, defended by three times as many Germans, 
that the French government changed its name to the "Wood of the 
Marine Brigade." 

270. The stories of the deeds of bravery by the American soldiers 
make a page of history that will thrill the American boy and girl to 
the remotest time. Among these stories, none shows more of a simple 
courage and trusting confidence in a Higher Power than that story 
of Lieutenant York, a Tennessee mountaineer. In the Argonne, he 
was sent with a handful ot men to capture a nest of machine guns. 



THE APPENDIX 519 

They crept through the tangled forest and over the rocks and hills 
until they reached the enemy without being seen. Then began a 
battle which tested the courage of the bravest. Nearly all York's 
comrades had fallen, but he kept on. With his automatic pistol he 
killed 25 men and captured 132 others. He destroyed several machine 
guns and marched his prisoners back to the American army. York 
did not seem to think he had done much. 

In this battle, an American battalion advanced so rapidly that the 
Germans cut it off from the American army but could not capture it. 
For three days this brave band, without food and water, stood their 
ground. They have become immortalized under the name of "The 
Lost Battahon." 

271. The Kaiser lost greatly in the estimation of his own people 
by deserting them in their hour of need. Had he led his army in one 
desperate charge against the Allies and had he died fighting, he would 
now stand much higher in the esteem of the German soldier. 

272. Before the war closed, the Quakers of America, true to the 
teachings of Fox and Penn, were already in the field helping to build 
up towns and villages in France. They were the first among the 
churches to take united action to aid France. Others have now gone 
in, and some of larger ones have been given certain villages to rebuild. 

273. Harding's popular majority over Cox was over 7,500,000. 



STUDY QUESTIONS 

(1-26) I. Picture Western Europe in 1500. 2. What did the 
common man do for a living? 3. How many and what classes were 
there then? 4. What changes in classes have been made since then? 
5. Picture the Northmen. 6. What were the causes of people turning 
attention to Western Europe? 7. What did Spain win in America 
in the race with Portugal? 8, Make a list of Spanish explorers with 
the countries visited. 9. What new thing would Coliambus have 
learned in 1522? 10. What did the king of France say about the 
pope's meridian? 11. What events grew out of the rivalry of England 
and Spain? 

(27-35) !• What natural advantages helped and what hindered 
the early settlers in America? 2. Explain how the Indians helped and 
hindered American settlers. 

(36-60) I. Why did English people at first hesitate to settle in 
America? 2. Why did they come later? 3. Give an imaginary con- 
versation between two Virginia settlers. 4. What events changed 
the whole life of the colony? 5. Name the things which made Vir- 
ginians content with their lot. 6. Who were the Puritans and Cava- 
liers? 7. What proof can you give that Berkeley had learned nothing 
from the rule of Cromwell? 8. How did Maryland as a colony differ 
from Virginia? 9. What became of Maryland's experiment in found- 
ing a medieval society? 10. Why should Maryland and Virginia 
have trouble? 11. Make a list of the countries from which the settlers 
of Carolina came. 12. In what respect did the Carolinas resemble 
Maryland? 13. What double motive did Oglethorpe have for founding 
Georgia? 14. Name the three great men who came out to Georgia. 

(61-83) I- To what other colonies did Puritans go besides Massa- 
chusetts? 2. What is the difference between a Separatist and a 
Puritan? 3. What custom came to us from the Pilgrims? 4. Give 
the cause and the purpose of the Puritans' leaving England. 5. Name 
the causes which led Puritans to settle in towns. 6. How does this 
plan of settlement compare with that followed by the southern colo- 
nies? 7. Classify leaders in New England as conservative and as 
progressive. 8. Which class comes nearest our time? What does 
this prove? 9. What have we already heard about the Puritan Revo- 
lution, or the Civil War in England? 10. What was the difference 
between the two revolutions in England? Which produced the 
greater changes in America? 11. What proprietary colonies have we 
already studied? 12. What other colonies were founded by the 
people themselves? 13. Name the leaders and state which of these 
colonies were democratic and which conservative. Where would you 

520 



THE APPENDIX 521. 

class the Plymouth and the Massachusetts Bay colonies? 14. What 
became of the colony of New Haven? of Maine? of Plymouth? 

(84- 106) I . What had the people of Holland done before the settle- 
ment of New York? 2. Who were the patroons and what did Mary- 
land and the Carolinas have that was like the patroon system? 
3. What were the reasons that New Netherland did not get self- 
government as soon as the other colonies? 4. Why did the Dutch 
settlers refuse to fight when the English came to conquer New Nether- 
land ? 5. What things did the English do for the advantage and the dis- 
advantage of the colony? 6. What first became of the colony of New 
Sweden? What was its fate finally? 7. Who first settled New Jer- 
sey, and how did it become English? 8. Draw a Hne between East 
and West Jersey. 9. Who occupied each part and how did the two 
parts finally become one? 10. Why did the people of New Jersey 
have no trouble with the Indians? 11. When did the Quakers first 
arise? 12. If a person obeys the inward voice, what will he believe 
and not believe? 13. Who was the most famous man among the 
Quakers? 14. In how many and in what ways did WiUiam Perm 
prove that he was a true Quaker? 15. Why was Perm's work in 
Pennsylvania called a "Holy Experiment"? 16. Perm and the 
Indians? Penn and the settlers? 

(107-159) I. Make a list of European nations sending people to 
settle in America and indicate the nations sending the most settlers. 
2. What class of people did not come to America? 3. Name the im- 
portant towns in colonial days. 4. Which colonies were most purely 
English? Where did the Dutch and Scotch-Irish settle? The Ger- 
mans? 5. Describe the first colonial houses and the furniture belong- 
ing to them. 6. Why did the log cabin and the blockhouse follow the 
frontier? 7. How did young people in different sections "pass the 
time away"? 8. How did a colonial schoolhouse differ from yours? 

19. Why were libraries so scarce then? 10. Explain how the kinds of 
religion came to tolerate each other. 11. Why did they punish 
people publicly in colonial times? Why not now? 12. How did the 
farmer in old colony days differ from the farmer of Europe? 13. What 
occupations were common to all the sections? 14. What was the 
leading occupation in each section? 15. Why did the colonial farmer 
raise so Uttle wheat? 16. Prove that the farmer was an independent 
man. Is he independent still? 17. Why was the small farmer a 
"jack of all trades"? 18. What other occupations did shipbuilding 
call for? 19. How did England look on colonial maniifactures? 

20. What were smuggling and piracy? 21. Where did we get our 
present-day state, county, and town government? 

(160-177) I. Picture the Indian battle at Lake Champlain in 
1609. 2. Trace the routes of Joliet and La Salle. 3. What was 
the Frenchman's plan for possessing New France? 4. What were 
the causes of King William and Queen Anne's wars? What did 
England gain? 5, What were Englishmen and Frenchmen doing 



522 THE APPENDIX 

in America during the long peace? 6. Why did both France and 
England want the region about the source of the Ohio? 7. Why- 
was George Washington chosen for the trip to order the French 
out of this region? 8. What did the meeting at Albany try to do? 
9. What was another name for the French and Indian War and why 
so named? 10. What great Englishman planned England's vic- 
tories? II. Why did the Englishmen want to get Quebec and why 
did the colonists rejoice over their victory? 12. What was the 
meaning of the victory to England and to the colonists? 13. What 
had these great wars done for the colonies? 

(178-197) I. How did European nations treat their colonies? 
2. If England treated her colonies so well, why did she and the colo- 
nies begin to quarrel? 3. Prove that George III had German ideas 
about England and America. 4. Why did English statesmen oppos- 
ing him support the Americans? 5. Explain what the people in 
America and England did to defeat the Stamp Act. 6. Keep a list 
of great Whigs in England until the end of the Revolution. 7. Give 
an example of the way the committees of secret correspondence worked. 
8. Causes and effects of the Intolerable Acts? 9. Visit the First 
Continental Congress and tell what you see there. 10. Why and 
by whom were the English Whigs kept posted on the Continental 
Congress? 11. What did the Whigs of England do to prevent war 
from brealdng out? 12. Shut your eyes and tell the story of the fight at 
Lexington and Concord. 13. Picture the battle of Bunker Hill. 
Why did the British lose so many men? 14. Prove it is better to 
win a battle by strategy than by fighting. 

(198-239) I. Prove that George III caused the separation of 
the colonies from England. 2. Which side would you have taken? 
Are you sure? 3. What are the rights of man? Read the causes 
of separation named in the Declaration of Independence. 4. What 
did Europe think? 5. See note 71 for the most famous Tories. 

6. What was our purpose before the Declaration was issued? After it? 

7. Prove that the British had reason to think the war over. 8. Pic- 
ture the battles of Trenton and Princeton. Make a list of the times 
Washington surprised the British. 9. Resolved that Washington 
was wise or unwise in following the method of Fabius. 10. What 
great men came to join the Americans now? 11. What good came 
out of Valley Forge? 12. What was the plan of Burgoyne? 13. Why 
was each part not carried out? 14. What great effect did it have 
in Europe? 15. Franklin's work in France? 16. Effect on England 
of the treaty between France and America? 17. Beginnings of the 
American navy — John Barry and Paul Jones? 18. Give the story 
of Boone, Robertson, and Clark. 19, Why did the British go south 
and what success did they have? 20. Tell of Marion and his men. 

2 1 . Name the three battles in the South before Comwallis started orth . 

22. Why did Washington start for Yorktown? 23. Give the effects 
pf Yorktown. 24. Give the story of the heroines of the Revolution. 



THE APPENDIX 523 

(240-267) I. How did the people make constitutions? What 
colonial examples did they have? 2. How did they make the Con- 
federation? What early examples did they have? 3. On what 
principle did they agree in making the Confederation? 4. Name the 
political and military defects of the Confederation, also the trade 
defects. 5. Why do people speak of the Ordinance of 1 787 as a famous 
document? 6. What events frightened some men into going to 
Philadelphia in 1787? 7. Prove John Fiske was right in caUing 
this a "critical period." 8. What other such periods have we had 
in our history down to 1920? 9. Get acquainted with the great 
men in the Convention and see what each did. 10. How did they 
disobey orders?^ 11. What was the first great dispute in the Con- 
vention and how was it settled? 12. Do you agree with Washing- 
ton's speech? 13. How did the states ratify the Constitution? 
14. Who opposed ratification? 15. What was the Bill of Rights? 
Where did it come from? 16. Name the great departments of govern- 
ment under the Constitution and a list of powers granted to each. 
17. How does the Supreme Court declare a law constitutional or 
unconstitutional? 18. Read over the first ten amendments. 

(268-295) I. Name the states with a larger population today 
than the nation had in 1790. 2. In what way were we and in what 
ways were we not independent of Europe? 3. Effect of the war 
on education? On religion and morals? 4. What did people think 
about slavery in colonial times and in 1790?' 5. What good effect 
did the war have on industry? 6. What two revolutions were there 
in Europe in the latter half of the eighteenth century? 7. How did 
Samuel Slater get his machinery to America? 8. Tell of the effects 
of the cotton gin on the South and on the North. 9. Where was the 
"West" in 1790? Describe how people got there. 10. Where did 
they trade and why? What danger was there in this western trade? 

11. Where could men travel the most rapidly in 1790? Where now? 

12. How did the makers of the Constitution intend presidential elec- 
tors to vote? How do they vote now and why? 13. Make a con- 
tinuous picture of Washington's journey to New York. 14. Write 
short sketches of the men Washington appointed to office. 1 5. Explain 
the origin of political parties. Which of them coxTespond to the 
parties of today? 16. What hard questions were raised by the French 
Revolution? 17. Compare Washington's position in 1793 with 
Wilson's position in 1914. 18. Have you read Washington's Fare- 
well Address? 19. Explain the X. Y. Z. affair. 20. Name the 
causes and the effects of the Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions. 
21. Give a full account of the campaign and election of 1800. -^ 

(296-311) I. Prove that not all of the criticisms of Jefferson were 
true. What did he believe that we accept now? 2. Why was he 
so popular in his first term? Who was Albert Gallatin? 3. Causes 
and effects of the purchase of Louisiana? 4. How did the purchase 
show that both Jefferson and the Federalists were not consistent? 



524 THE APPENDIX 

5. What two ends were served by the Lewis and Clark expedition? 

6. Study the admission of early states and show between what years 
the people went west in greatest numbers. 7. Sketch Napoleon. 
Was he good, bad, or both? 8. Whom would you have sided with, 
Napoleon or England? 9. Was the Embargo a success or a failure? 
10. What did Jefferson and Madison do to keep from war? Who were 
the "War Hawks"? 1 1 . The inequality of the two nations in the war? 

(312-322) I. Why were Americans generally successful in the 
West and not in the East? 2. Picture the battle between the "Con- 
stitution" and the "Guerriere." 3. How do you explain our vic- 
tories on the sea? 4. Name two events in the war for both English- 
men and Americans to be ashamed of. 5. Why would the battle 
of New Orleans not occur now? 6. What was there awkward in the 
Hartford Convention for Federalists and Republicans? 7. Explain 
how the Embargo and the war stimulated our home manufactures. 
8. What caused the protective tariff of 1816? Who favored and who 
opposed it? 9. What do a hundred years of peace between England 
and America mean? 

(323-364) I. Why did the people rush west after the War of 181 2? 
2. How did the farmers get on when first settling in a new region? 
How did the wife furnish her table? 3. The cause for the call for inter- 
nal improvements? Who was the great champion of this movement 
for roads, canals, etc.? ^4. What were the uses of the steamboat in 
that day? 5. The effect of the first steamboat from New Orleans to 
Louisville? 6. Picture scenes on the Cumberland Road. 7. Locate lead- 
ing canals and show how the Erie Canal operated. 8. What became 
of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, begun in 1827? 9. What were the 
older states doing in this time? 10. How did their people divide over 
internal improvements and a protective tariff? 11. What new prob- 
lems did the new states introduce? 12. The cause and purpose of the 
Missouri Compromise? 13. Origin of Spain's trouble with her colo- 
nies? 14. Who were the heroes of South America? Who gave them 
sympathy? 15. What was the "Holy AUiance"? Who were the 
leading men opposed to the Alliance? 16. Cause, nature, and purpose 
of the Monroe Doctrine? 17. When has the United States asserted 
this doctrine? 18. When lately was it under discussion? ig. What 
was the "era of good feeling "? 20. Explain the changes that had come 
to the common man since colonial days. 21. Account for the election 
of John Quincy Adams. 22. What were the strong points and the 
weak ones in Jackson's character? 23. What was the "Spoils Sys- 
tem"? What became of it? 24. Prove that Jackson was the fighting 
president. Who were the great men against him? 25. Causes and 
effects of the panic of 1837? 26. Picture the Log Cabin and Hard 
jDider Campaign (1840). 

(365-400) I. Compare the United States in 1790 and i860. Com- 
pare North and South. 2. How do you explain the difference in popu- 
lation between the North and South? 3. Where did the Americans 



THE APPENDIX 525 

who moved west before 1820 settle? 4. Explain the nature of immi- 
gration, 1 830- 1 860. Where did the immigrants settle and why? 
5. Effect of new immigration on new states and on the balance of 
power between the North and the South? 6. Compare "home life 
and pastimes" on che frontier with those of colonial days and in 1790. 
7. What changes had come in the older states? 8. Indicate changes 
in common and in high schools and in colleges. 9. Leaders in educa- 
tion? 10. Early writers and the "children's poets"? 11. Newspapers 
and magazines? Which of these are yet alive? 12. What was the 
lyceum? Does it exist today? 13. The "circuit rider"? The camp 
meeting? 14. Moral reforms and improvement in laboring condi- 
tions? 15. Origin of labor unions? 16. What was the cause of the 
woman's movement and who were its leaders? 17. Why was the 
farmer a "conservative"? 18. What were the leading farm inventions 
in this period? 19. What caused the factories to grow rapidly? 
What changes came in them? 20. The inventions that gave women 
relief? 21. Why was Pennsylvania the great industrial state in this 
period? 22. Prove that Morse and Field were great heroes. 23. How 
did railroads grow in this period? 24. How long did it take ships in 
colonial days to get across the ocean? In 1850? 1920? Any shorter 
way of getting over? 25. Meaning of Perry's visit to Japan? 

(401-430) I. State the fundamental differences between the North 
and the South. 2. How was the South disappointed over the first 
protective tariff? 3. Picture the Webster-Hayne debate. 4. What 
was Jackson's position? 5. Personahties in the debate on the "Force 
Bill" and the "Compromise Tariff"? 6. The position of the slave? 
7. What did the Abolitionists demand? What did that mean for 
the slave? 8. What was Calhoun's position? 9. What was the posi- 
tion of the South? Of the North? 10. Battle over the right of peti- 
tion? II. Why could the Americans and the Mexicans not get on 
well together? 12. What did Sam Houston do for Texas? 13. How did 
Texas become a part of the United States? 14. Why did Polk win in 
the campaign of 1844? 15. What nations laid claim to the Oregon 
country? 16. Describe a journey to the Oregon country. 17. Ex- 
plain how settlers in the Willamette region took the lead. 18. What 
were the Oregon "battle cries" in the campaign of 1844? 19. Why 
did Polk take the line of 49°? 20. The real cause and results of the 
Mexican War? 21. Who opposed the war and why? 22. What was 
the Wilmot Proviso? 23. What was odd about the presidential 
candidates in 1848? 24. Who were the Free-Soilers? 25. How did 
we get possession of Cahfomia? What was the effect of the dis- 
covery of gold in that region? 26. Where did the majority of the 
settlers in California come from and why? 27. How did they stand on 
the slave question? 28. Who was the author of the Compromise of 
1850? 29. What different positions did the great men of the country 
take in the great Debate? 30. What was the "Underground Rail- 
road"? "Personal Liberty Laws"? 



526 THE APPENDIX 

(431-452) I. Early career of Douglas? 2. How did Douglas kill 
the Whig party and shatter the Democratic party?' 3. Why was it 
easier for the North to send voters to Kansas than for the South? 
4. What was "popular" or "squatter" sovereignty? 5. How was 
Douglas treated by his own neighbors? 6. What did the two parties 
do in Kansas? The effect upon the country? 7. The campaign of 
1856 and what the result shows? 8. What was the Dred Scott deci- 
sion? How was t a double blow? 9. The early career of Lincoln? 
10. What was the point to his speech when he was nominated for the 
Senate? 1 1 . Describe the "joint debates " and show what their effects 
were. 12. How did the debates help split the Democratic party at 
Charleston in 1 860?, 13. Why was Lincoln elected in i860? 14. The 
patriotic conduct of Douglas? 15. Describe the different attempts at 
conciHation. Why was it not possible? 16. Reasons for and against 
secession? 17. Why did the South think she could succeed? 

(453-485) I. Military problems of the war? 2. England's atti- 
tude toward North and South? 3. How did the "Monitor" save the 
blockade? Show how the blockade helped win the war. 4. Explain 
the different steps taken by Union troops in the West to the time of 
the fall of Vicksburg. 5. How did McClellan get his army to the 
"Peninsula"? 6. What was the result of the campaign? 7. Who 
was General Pope and v/hy did Lee win in the second battle of 
Bull Run? 8. What relation did this battle have to Lee's invasion 
of Maryland? 9. What bearing did the battle of Antietam have on 
results of the war? 10. What was the first purpose of the war? Did 
Lincoln change this purpose? 11. What did his enemies say to this? 
12. Why did Lincoln issue a first proclamation? 13. What connection 
did Fredericksburg and Chancellors viUe have with Gettysburg? 
14. Would you have quit after Gettysburg if you had been General 
Lee? 15. What was the difference between "War Democrats" and 
' ' Peace Democrats " ? 16. Who were ' ' Copperheads " ? 17. What was 
the political situation during the campaign of 1864? 

(486-512) I. Name the war campaigns in 1864 and in 1865 and 
tell the results of "each. 2. Tell the story of Lee's surrender. 3. How 
did Lincoln's assassination affect the fortunes of the South? 4. What 
were the different effects of the war on the Union and on the Con- 
federacy? 5. Why was the planter such a sufferer? 6. Who was 
secretary of the treasury and what did he do? Name other members 
of the Cabinet. 

(513-522) I. What was Lincoln's plan of reconstruction? What 
great principle was it based on? 2. Why did Congress not like 
Johnson? 3. In what sense did the Thirteenth Amendment complete 
the work of emancipalion? 4. How did Congress try to protect the 
negro? 5. What caused Congress to impeach President Johnson? 

6. State the main point in the congressional plan of reconstruction. 

7. Did the congressional plan cause the "Carpetbag" rule in the 
South? Prove your answer. 8. What was the Ku-Klux Klan? 



THE APPENDIX 527 

What means did it use? Why was it suppressed? 9. What were 
the points to the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments? 10. How 
do the people of the South feel toward them? 

(523-544) I- What kind of president did General Grant make? 
2. What do you know about Horace Greeley? 3. What caused the 
panic of 1873? 4. What effect did it have on Congress? 5. What 
new questions were coming up in the Hayes-Tilden campaign? 6. If 
you had been Tilden would you have given up so easily? Why? 
7. What did Hayes do for the South? Its effect on him and on the 
South? 8. Why were western farmers dissatisfied with the big poli- 
tical parties? 9. What did the Grangers accomplish? 10. What 
did the Greenback party demand? 11. What were the demands of 
the Populist party? 12. Why were the people dissatisfied with the 
Harrison administration? 13. What caused the panic of 1893? 14. 
State some effects of it. 15. Why did the Louisiana senators fight 
the Wilson tariff bill? 16. How can a bill become a law without the 
president's signature? 17. Why was an income tax law passed in 
1893? 18. What is the result when the Supreme Court declares a 
law unconstitutional? 

(545-572) I. What reasons were given for the fall in prices from 
1873 to 1897? 2. What was "the crime of '73"? 3. What remedy 
did the farmers and silver miners of the West offer for low prices? 
4. What two silver piirchase acts were passed? 5. Why was the pur- 
chase of silver stopped? 6. What is the most valuable product of 
Alaska? 7. What is the value of world's expositions? 8. What does 
"free silver" mean? 9. What is "imperialism"? 10. In what cam- 
paign was imperialism an issue? 11. Explain the failure of the "free 
silver" plan. 12. How much gold is there in a gold dollar? 13. What 
is meant by saying that the gold dollar is the standard? 14. Review 
Roosevelt's political career before he became president. 15. Why 
did he oppose the trusts? 16. How did he help to bring about peace 
between Japan and Russia? 17. Why was Roosevelt so popular? 

18. What was the estimated wealth of the United States in 191 8? 

19. Name some natural resources. 20. Why have natural resources 
been wasted? 21. What was Roosevelt's plan regarding the forests 
of the West? 22. How did Taft help conservation? 23. Who looks 
after the forests? 24. Give some idea of how destructive forest fires 
are. 25. What is the object of irrigation? 26. Who looks after it? 
27. Compare the area of irrigated land in the United States to the area 
of West Virginia. 28. Why was the country disappointed in the 
Payne-Aldrich Act? 29. If there is $167,000,000 deposited in the 
postal savings banks, how much interest does the government pay 
out each year? 30. How do parcel post rates compare with the 
rates for first-class mail? 31. What were the "special interests"? 
32. Explain the break between Taft and Roosevelt. 23- How was 
Taft nominated? 34. What did the Progressives demand? 35. Who 
dominated the Democratic convention at Baltimore? 36. Explain 
Wilson's victory. 



528 THE APPENDIX 

(573-604) I. Describe conditions in Cuba before 1898. 2. What 
interest did Americans have in the struggle? 3. Describe the sink- 
ing of the "Maine." 4. What promise did the United States make 
when it declared war on Spain? 5. Describe the battle of Manila. 
6. Who were the "Rough Riders"? 7. Describe the exploit of Lieu- 
tenant Hobson. 8. How do you explain the defeat of the Spanish 
fleet? 9. State four provisions of the Treaty of Paris. 10. Show 
that the United States kept its promise. 11. In what ways is the 
United States related to Cuba now? 12. Give five results of the war. 
13. What does it mean to say our isolation is ended? 14. When did 
the demand for a canal at Panama arise? 15. Why were farmers 
and manufacturers in favor of it? 16. Why did the French fail? 
17. What did the trip of the "Oregon" have to do with building the 
canal? 18. How much did we pay for a strip of land for the canal? 
19. How did our men get rid of yellow fever? 20. When was the 
canal completed? 21. How long and how wide is it? 22. What 
are the locks for? 2^. Give some examples of distances saved by 
the canal. 24. Why were the Hawaiian Islands not annexed in 
1893? 25. Of what use is a coaling station? 26. How did the United 
States get the island of Tutuila? 27. Explain the "Boxer" rebellion. 
28. What was Hay's "open door" pohcy? 29. Why does China 
regard the United States as her best friend? 30. Who was the leader 
of the Filipinos in their resistance to the Americans? 31. What 
steps have been taken to improve conditions in the Philippines? 
32. What is the United States trying to do in the Philippines? S3- Is 
there any chance for them to secure independence? 34. Do you 
think they should be granted independence now? Why? 35. What 
is international arbitration? 36. What reason can you give for 
using it? 37. Name four cases in which arbitration was used. 
38. What was the question in the seal fisheries case? The Alaskan 
boundary case? The Venezuela case? 39. How many times have 
England and the United States arbitrated their differences since 
1789? 40. What were the main purposes of the Hague meetings? 
41. Why did they not end war? 42. What is the principal 
feature of the "wait-a-bit" treaties? 43. What was the cause of 
Venezuela's trouble in 1902? 44. Why does the United States have 
troops in Santo Domingo and Haiti? 45. Why was Diaz driven 
from Mexico? 46. How many presidents has Mexico had since 
Diaz? 47. Explain the interest of Americans in Mexico. 48. Why 
did neither Taft nor Wilson wish to send troops to Mexico? 49. What 
was the "A. B. C." intervention? 50. What new meaning is being 
given the Monroe Doctrine? 51. How do the large South American 
states feel toward this Doctrine? 52. What is a Pan-American con- 
gress? 53. How many have been held? 54. Of what use are they? 
55. What is the Pan-American Union? 56. What are its purposes? 

(605-635) I. When did immigration begin to increase rapidly? 
2. Why did not the immigrants go to the South? 3. Explain the 
increase of immigration after the Civil War. 4. What nations 



THE APPENDIX 529 

contributed to the settlement of the Northwest? 5. State the relation 
of railroads to immigration. 6. About when did the immigration 
from Central and Eastern Europe begin? 7. Where did these people 
settle? Why? 8. What effect did this immigration have on poUtics? 
9. Have you ever been in the foreign quarter in a city? 10. Why 
did people want to keep the Chinese and Japanese out of this 
country? 11. What trouble does the Federal goverrmient have on 
this accoiuit? 12. What is it to be naturalized? 13. Describe the 
process. 14. Should all foreigners be compelled to be natvu-ahzed? 
15. Why did the later groups of immigrants find it hard to become 
Americans? 16. What steps can be taken to Americanize our immi- 
grants? 17. How did the coming of the factories change the relations 
of employers and workers? 18. Explain the revival of the labor union 
movement after the Civil War. 19. Describe the organization of the 
American Federation of Labor. 20. About how many unionized men 
are there in the country? 21. What is collective bargaining? Why do 
unions beheve in it? 22. Name an employers' organization. 23. What 
is picketing? 24. Give an example of time lost in strikes. 25. Give 
an example showing how hard it is to keep violence out of strikes. 
26. Does the public have any interest in strikes? 27. What was 
Roosevelt's attitude? 28. What part does the government take in 
strikes? 29. What is a boycott? 30. Why do the unions object to 
the inj unction ? 31. What points of th e labor question did the Clayton 
Act cover? 3 2 . What plan have the unions f ol lowed to get the support 
of the political parties? S3- What objections are there to child labor 
in factories? 34. What is the Children's Bureau to do? 35. What 
steps have been taken to make the workers safe? 36. Name som,e 
occupations that are dangerous to workers. 37. What reasons can 
you give in favor of workingmen's compensation acts? 38. Why 
should everybody be interested in preventing injury to workingmen? 
39. Why are some employers in favor of welfare work? 40. Why did 
men begin to organize trusts? 41. Tell of the growth of the trusts. 
42. What is the effect of the trusts on the small producers? 43. What 
did the railroads gain by combining? 44. Do you Uve near a branch 
of any great railroad system? If so, what system is it? 45. Why 
did the people feel angry over the growth of "big business"? 46. What 
was the object of the Sherman Anti-Trust Act? 47. Name two com- 
panies that were prosecuted. 48. What was the result? 49. What 
have we learned about "big business"? 

(636-654) I. Why did people begin holding nominating conven- 
tions? 2. Why did they begin holding primary elections? 3. Does 
your state hold presidential preference primary elections? 4. Why 
was the old system of voting bad? 5. Wherein is the Australian 
system better? 6. Does yoiu" state use the short ballot? 7. Why 
did people begin using the system of "direct legislation"? 8. Does 
your state use the initiative, the referendum, or the recall? 9. Why 
was the Seventeenth Amendment adopted? 10. Which is growing 

18 



53° THE APPENDIX 

faster, city or rural population? ii. Why is the problem of city 
government a hard one? 12. What is a city charter? 13. Describe 
the ordinary city government. 14. Why did people complain of it? 
15. Where did the commission plan start? Describe it. 16. Name 
six cities that use it. 17. Why are city managers hired? 18. What 
are they supposed to do? 19. Name five cities that have city man- 
agers. 20. What is necessary to get a good city government? 

21. Where did socialism start? 22. What objections have socialists 
to private ownership? 23. What wovild they do about it? 24. State 
some arguments for and against socialism. 25. Why do the socialists 
wish to get control of the American Federation of Labor? 26. When 
did the Socialist party cast its biggest vote? 27. In what way is a 
protective tariff different from a tariff for revenue only? 28. Was 
the Underwood tariff a tariff for revenue only? 29. Why did Con- 
gress pass the Income Tax Law of 19 13? 30. Why was the Federal 
Reserve Act passed? 31. In what Federal Reserve district do you live? 
32. Why did the United States send an army to Mexico in 1916? 
1^7,. Should the United States conquer Mexico? Why? 34. Why did 
we buy the Virgin Islands? 

(660-692) I. Why was the mountain region the last to be settled? 
2. What was the object of the Homestead Act? 3. What was a 
"bonanza" farm? 4. What states owe their settlement largely to 
the Northern Pacific Railroad? 5. What national park is in Montana? 
6. Why did the fur companies struggle for the territory near the mouth 
of the Columbia? 7. Explain the large population of Washington 
when it was admitted to the Union. 8. Why did the Mormons go to 
Utah? 9. For what pui-pose was the Indian Territory set apart? 

10. Why were the white men so anxious to get into the Territory? 

11. What railroads opened up the Southwest to settlement? 12. Why 
did the Spaniards explore the territory of New Mexico and Arizona? 

13. Sum up the part of the railroads in the settlement of the West. 

14. What was the reason for the rapid growth of the cities after 1900? 

15. What qualities did the frontier develop in its people? Why? 

16. Why is the West the home of reform? 17. What was the main 
cause of trouble between the white men and the Indians? 18. When 
did Congress begin moving the Indians beyond the Mississippi? 
19. Tell of the death of Custer. 20. Why was reservation life bad 
for the Indians? 21. Was the Dawes Act an improvement? Why? 

22. What is the fact about the Indians dying out? 23. Why should 
people living in a country like ours be educated? 24. Why has edu- 
cation been backward in the South? 25. Why is the elementary school 
very important? 26. What per cent of the children starting to school 
have dropped out by the end of the sixth grade? 27. Why do they 
drop out? 28. What new subjects have been added to the course of 
study? 29. What per cent has attendance in high schools in- 
creased since 1880? 30. Is there a good high school in your neighbor- 
hood ? 31. State two big changes in high schools since 1 880. 32. Why 



THE APPENDIX S3 1 

should a teacher be trairxcd for her work? 33. What did the Morrill 
Act do for education? 34. What can a student study at the state 
university? 35. Why were vocational subjects added to the course 
of study? 36. What practical subjects can boys and girls study in 
vocational schools? 37. Do you think parents should be compelled 
to-send their children to school? Why? 38. Why were night schools 
started? 39. What is meant by saying a school is a "community 
center"? 40. Do you have a community center in your neighbor- 
hood? 41 . What good has been done by medical inspection in schools? 
42. Do you think women need higher education as much as men? 
Why? 43. Do you know of any college or university that does not 
admit women? 44. Will giving women the right to vote have any 
effect on this situation? 45. Name something that "Mark Twain" 
wrote besides the books mentioned in the text. 46. Try to find the 
poem Columbus and read it. 47. Name three southern writers. 

48. Have you read any of Riley's poems? Which do you like best? 

49. Who wrote the Hoosier School Boy? 50. Name three short- 
story writers ; two novelists. 51. Do you read a daily newspaper? A 
periodical? 52. Name three current events magazines. 53. Does 
your school take one? 54. Is there a free public library near you? 
55. Does your school have a library? 56. Of what use is it? What 
kind of books does it contain? 57. What great gift did Mr. Carnegie 
make the American people? 

(693-733) I. What are exports? Imports? 2. Why do nations 
exchange goods? 3. What advantages have our farmers? 4. Show 
how our export of farm products has grown since 1880. 5. What 
are oiu* largest agricultural exports? 6. Why do we not export com 
in large quantities? 7. Explain the growth in manufactured exports 
since 1880. Is this a good thing for us? 8. Why is Europe oi.u: best 
customer? 9. Why does not England produce all the farm products 
she wants? 10. Why must a nation import goods if it wants an 
export business? 11. Is it a bad thing to import goods? 12. What 
are the principal articles imported by the United States? 13. What 
is a "favorable" balance of trade? 14. Why did the United States 
have only a small export trade to South America until a few years 
ago? 15. What does "reciprocity" mean? 16. What relation does 
the Panama Canal have to trade with South America? 17. Why are 
Americans getting more business in South America than they used to 
have? 18. What countries of South America are our best customers? 
19. What is the merchant marine? 20. Do you favor a subsidy for 
the merchant marine? Why? 21. What part of the world's wealth 
do we produce each year? 22. How has wealth grown in comparison 
to population? 23. Give reasons for the rapid growth of wealth. 
24. Do you think it pays the country to keep up the universities and 
agricultural colleges? Why? 25. Of what use are the scientists? 
26. Give illustrations. 27. Why is machinery used on the farm? 
28. How has the use of machinery on farms increased? 29. In what 



532 THE APPENDIX 

sense is the farmer dependent upon the means of transportation? 

30. What does it cost now to send wheat from Kansas to Liverpool? 

31. Illustrate how extending transportation affects other industries 
by the case of dairying. 32. Why did the farmers begin running 
grain elevators for themselves? s;}. What state has gone into the 
business? 34. Could we get along as well today without cold storage 
plants? 35. Mention several respects in which the farmer's life has 
recently changed. 36. What is the effect of these changes upon 
continued improvement? 37. Show that farm tenancy is growing. 
38. Is this a good thing? Why? 39. What were the reasons for 
starting land banks? 40. Do you think it pays the country to keep 
up the Department of Agriculture? Why? 41. How does the num- 
ber of people engaged in agriculture compare with the number in 
manufacturing? 42. Give six main reasons for the development of 
manufacturing. 43. How many classes of manufactured goods does 
the census make? (See Census Report.) 44. In what ways does 
manufacturing use science? 45. Give examples of direct produc- 
tion. 46. Give examples of indirect production. 47. Which is better? 
Why? 48. Give examples of division of labor. 49. Why do the 
factories work on this plan? 50. Why are machines important in 
production? 51. What factors control the location of factories? 
52. How do the states rank in manufacturing? 53. Illustrate the 
growth of the South in manufacturing. 54. Why was it slow getting 
started? 55. Give some illustrations of how industries are localized in 
certain cities. 56. How do "the industries rank according to numbers 
of workers? 57. How according to value of output? (See Census.) 
58. Name ten manufacturing cities according to their rank. 59. 
What are by-products? 60. Give an illustration of how science has 
shown how to use them. 61. What city leads in meat packing? 
62. Of what use is the refrigerator car? 63. Why is the iron industry 
centered in the Pittsburgh district? 64. What other iron districts 
have been developed? 65. Why was the cotton manufacturing 
industry first developed in New England? 66. Why was it slow to 
develop in the South? 67. How do the states rank in cotton manu- 
facture? 68. What was the industrial revolution? 69. Why does 
the inventor go to work? Give two illustrations. 70. Why does 
invention not stop when a machine has been invented? 71. When 
vvas the first patent law passed? 72. Do you think it a wise thing 
for the government to issue patents? Why? 73. Give some figures 
indicating the great number of patents issued in the United States. 
74. Name ten inventions not listed in the text. 

(734-778) I. What do you think was the real cause of the World 
War? 2. Imagine yourself in Wilson's place between 19 14 and 191 7. 
Tell what problems he had to face. 3. State the immediate cause of 
war. 4. Why had so many Americans gone to war before war was 
declared by this country? 5. Make a list of the ways people at home 
helped win the war. 6. Make a list of war organizations at home. 



THE APPENDIX 533 

7. Make a list of warships. 8. Make a list of what the soldier saw 
and did before he went to France? 9. Why were Americans rushed 
to France before entirely prepared to fight? 10. What was done to 
overcome this defect? 11. How long had the AlUes been fighting 
when American soldiers entered the war? 12. Which was the great- 
est battle for the Americans? 13. What connection was there between 
the work of the English and American navies and the Armistice? 

14. State the chief points imposed on Germany by the Armistice. 

15. What great social changes were caused by the war? 16. Give 
a brief account of the religious changes due to the war. 17. How do 
you accoimt for the Harding election? 



534 THE APPENDIX 



THE "MAYFLOWER" COMPACT 

ill ye name of God, Amen. We whose names are writen, the loyall 
subjects of our dread soveraigne Lord, King James, by ye grace of God, 
of Great Britaine, Franc, & Ireland, king, defender of ye faith, &c., 
haveing undertaken, for ye glorie of God, and advancemente of ye 
Christian faith, and honour of our king & countrie, a voyage to plant 
ye first colonie in ye Northeme parts of Virginia, doe by these presents 
solemnly & mutualy in ye presence of God, and one of another, cove- 
nant & combine our selves togeather into a civill body politick, for our 
better ordering & preservation & furtherance of ye ends aforesaid : and 
by vertue hearof to enacte, constitute, and frame such just & equall 
lawes, ordinances, actes, constitutions, & offices, from time to time, as 
shall be thought most meete & convenient for ye generall good of ye 
Colonie, unto which we promise all due submission and obedience. In 
witnes wherof we have hereunder subscribed our names at Cape-Cod ye 
II. of November, in the year of ye raigne of our soveraigne lord. King 
James, of England, France & Ireland ye i8, and of Scotland ye fiftie- 
fourth. Ano. Dom. 1620. 



THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE' 

In Congress, July 4, 1776. 

The following declaration of principles was agreed to ou July 4, 1776, 
and is thus recorded in the Journal of Congress for that day : 

Agreeably to the order of the day, the Congress resolved itself into 
a committee of the whole to take into their further consideration the 
Declaration ; and, after some time, the president resumed the chair, and 
Mr. Harrison reported that the committee have agreed to a Declaration, 
which they desired him to report. The Declaration being read, was 
agreed to as follows : 
The Unanimous Declaration of the Thirteen United States of 

America 

When, in the course of human events, it becomes necessary for one 
people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with 
another, and to assume among the powers of the earth the separate and 
equal station to which the laws of nature and of nature's God entitle 
them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they 
should declare the causes which impel them to the separation. 

We hold these truths to be self-evident : That all men are created 
equal ; that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable 
rights ; that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness ; 
that, to secure these rights, governments are instituted among men, 
deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed ; that, when- 
ever any form of government becomes destructive of these ends, it is 
the right of the people to alter or to abolish it, and to institute a. new 
government, laying its foundation on such principles, and organizing its 
powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their 

IThe use of capitals, the punctuation, the paragraphing, and the numbering of 
paragraphs are all modem. In the original draft the use of capitals and punctuation 
marks was quite difierent and there was no division into paragraphs. 



THE APPENDIX 535 

safety and happiness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate that governments 
long established should not be changed for light and transient causes ; 
and, accordingly, all experience hath shown that mankind are more 
disposed to suffer, while evils are sufferable, than to right themselves 
by abolishing the forms to which they are accustomed. But when a long 
train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same object, 
evinces a design to reduce them under absolute despotism, it is their 
right, it is their duty, to throw off such government, and to provide new 
guards for their future security. Such has been the patient sufferance 
of these colonies ; and such is now the necessity which constrains them 
to alter their former systems of government. The history of the present 
king of Great Britain is a history of repeated injuries and usurpations, 
all having in direct object the establishment of an absolute tyranny over 
these states. To prove this, let facts be submitted to a candid world. 

I. He has refused his assent to laws, the most wholesome and 
necessary for the public good. 

2 He has forbidden his governors to pass laws of immediate and 
pressing importance, unless suspended in their operation till his assent 
should be obtained ; and, when so suspended, he has utterly neglected 
to attend to them. 

J. He has refused to pass other laws for the accommodation of 
large districts of people unless those people would relinquish the right 
of representation in the legislature — a right inestimable to them, and 
formidable to tyraxits only. 

4. He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, 
uncomfortable, and distant from the depository of their public records, 
for the sole purpose of fatiguing them into compliance with his measures. 

5. He has dissolved representative houses repeatedly for opposing, 
with manly firmness, his invasions on the rights of the people. 

6. He has refused for a long time, after such dissolutions, to cause 
others to be elected ; whereby the legislative powers, incapable of anni- 
hilation, have returned to the people at large for their exercise;_the state 
remaining, in the meantime, exposed to all the dangers of invasions 
from without and convulsions within. 

7. He has endeavored to prevent the population of these states ; 
for that purpose obstructing the laws for naturalization of foreigners; 
refusing to pass others to encourage their migration hither, and raising 
the conditions of new appropriations of lands. 

8. He has obstructed the administration of justice by refusing his 
assent to laws for establishing judiciary powers. 

g. He has made judges dependent on his will alone for the tenure 
of their offices and the amount and payment of their salaries. 

JO. He has erected a multitude of new offices, and sent hither 
swarms of officers to harass our people and eat out their substance. 

II. He has kept among us, in times of peace, standing armies, 
without the consent of our legislatures. 

13. He has affected to render the military independent of, and 
superior to, the civil power. 

13. He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction 
foreign to our Constitution and unacknowledged by our laws, giving his 
assent to their acts of pretended legislation : 

a. For quartering large bodies of armed troops among us. 

b. For protecting them, by a mode trial, from punishment for any 
murders which they should commit on the inhabitants of these states. 



536 THE APPENDIX 

c. For cutting off our trade with all parts of the world. 

d. For imposing taxes on us without our consent. 

e. For depriving us, in many cases, of the benefits of trial by jury. 
y. For transporting us beyond seas to be tried for pretended 

offenses. 

g. For abolishing the free system of English laws in a neighboring 
province, establishing therein an arbitrary government, and enlarging 
its boundaries so as to render it at once an example and fit instrument 
for introducing the same absolute rule into these colonies. 

h. For taking away our charters, abolishing our most valuable laws, 
and altering fundamentally the forms of our governments. 

/*. For suspending our own legislature and declaring themselves 
invested with power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever. 

14. He has abdicated government here by declaring us out of his 
protection, and waging war against us. 

75. He has plundered our seas, ravaged our coasts, burnt our towns, 
and destroyed the lives of our people. 

j6. He is at this time transporting large armies of foreign mercena- 
ries to complete the works of death, desolation, and tyranny, already 
begun with circumstances of cruelty and perfidy scarcely paralleled in 
the most barbarous ages, and totally unworthy the head of a civilized 
nation. 

77. He has constrained our fellow-citizens, taken captive on the 
high seas, to bear arms against their country, to become the execution- 
ers of their friends and brethren, or to fall themselves by their hands. 

18. He has excited domestic insurrections amongst us, and has 
endeavored to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers the merciless 
Indian savages, whose known rule of warfare is an undistinguished 
destruction of all ages, sexes, and conditions. 

In every stage of these oppressions we have petitioned for redress in 
the most humble terms; our repeated petitions have been answered only 
by repeated injury. A prince, whose character is thus marked by every 
act which may define a tyrant, is unfit to be the ruler of a free people. 

Nor have we been wanting in our attentions to our British brethren. 
We have warned them from time to time, of attempts by their legisla- 
ture to extend an unwarrantable jurisdiction over us. We have reminded 
them of the circumstances of our emigration and settlement here. We 
have appealed to their native justice and magnanimity, and we have 
conjured them by the ties of our common kindred to disavow these 
usurpations, which would inevitably interrupt our connections and cor- 
respondence. They, too, have been deaf to the voice of justice and of 
consanguinity. We must, therefore, acquiesce in the necessity which 
denounces our separation, and hold them, as we hold the rest of man- 
kind — enemies in war; in peace, friends. 

We, therefore, the representatives of the United States of America, 
in general Congress assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the 
world for the rectitude of our intentions, do, in the name and by the 
authority of the good people of these colonies, solemnly publish and 
declare that these united colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and 
independent states ; that they are absolved from all allegiance to the 
British crown, and that all political connection between them and the 
state of Great Britain is, and ought to be, totally dissolved ; and that as 
free and independent states, they have full power to levy war, conclude 
peace, contract alliances, establish commerce, and do all other acts and 



THE APPENDIX 



537 




things which independent states may of right do. And for the support 
of this Declaration, with a firm reliance on the protection of Divine 
Providence, we mutually pledge to each other our lives, our fortunes, 
and our sacred honor. 

The foregoing declaration was, by order of Congress, engrossed and 
signed by the following members : 



New Hampshire 
Josiah Bartlett 
William Whipple 
Matthew Thornton 

Massachusetts Bay 
Samuel Adams 
John Adams 
Robert Treat Paine 
Elbridge Gerry 

Rhode Island 
Stephen Hopkins 
W^illiam Ellery 

Connectictit 
Roger Sherman 
Samuel Huntington 
William Williams 
Oliver Olcott 

New York 
William Floyd 
Philip Livingston 
Francis Lewis 
Lewis Morris 



New Jersey 
Richard Stockton 
John Witherspoon 
Francis Hopkinson 
John Hart 
Abraham Clark 

PetiJtsylvanta 

Robert Morris 
Benjamin Rush 
Benjamin Franklin 
John Morton 
George Clymer 
James Smith 
George Taylor 
James Wilson 
George Ross 

Delaware 
Caesar Rodney 
George Read 
Thomas M'Kean 

Maryland 
Samuel Chase 
William Paca 
Thomas Stone 
Charles Carroll of Car- 
rollton 



Virginia 
George Wythe 
Richard Henry Lee 
Thomas Jefferson 
Benjamin Harrison 
Thomas Nelson, Jun, 
Francis Lightfoot Lee 
Carter Braxton 

North Carolina 
William Hooper 
Joseph Hewes 
John Penn 

Soiith Carolina 
Edward Rutledge 
Thomas Heyward,Jun. 
Thomas Lynch, Jun. 
Arthur Middleton 

Georgia 
Button Gwinnett 
Lyman Hall 
George Walton 





538 



THE APPENDIX 



PROVISIONS OF THE CONSTITUTION 



Some steps toward fed- 
eration, resulting in the 
Constitution : 



With regard 
to the United 
States Govern- 
ment the Consti- 
tution provides 
for: 



With regard 
to the members 
of the House of 
Representa- 
tives, the Con- 
stitution pro- 
vides for: 



With regard 
to the members 
of the Senate, 
the Constitution 
provides for: 



With regard 
to the President, 
the Constitution 
provides for: 



The New England Confederacy (1643). 

The Albany Plan (1754). 

The Stamp Act Congress (1765). 

The Committees of Correspondence (1773). 

The First Continental Congress (1774). 

The Declaration of Independence (1776). 

Articles of Confederation Adopted (1781). 

Convention at Annapolis (1786). 

Constitutional Convention (1787). 



' Legislative Department. 
Executive Department. 
Judicial Department. 



House of 
Senate. 
President. 
President's Cabinet 
Federal Judges. 
Federal Courts. 



Representatives 



Qualifications. 

Distribution. 
The census. 



Manner of election. By the people of the several states. 
Term of office. Two years. 

Twenty-five years old. 

Seven years a citizen of the 
United States. 

Live in state where chosen. 

{Among the states according to the 
number of inhabitants. 
Every ten years. 
A presiding officer. Members elect the Speaker. 
Power to impeach Federal officers. 

Number. Two from each state. 

Manner of election. By the state legislatures.^ 
Term of office. Six years. 

Thirty years of age. 

Nine years a citizen of the United 
States. 

Live in state where elected. 

(Vice-President of United States. 
In absence of Vice-President Sen- 
ate elects president pro tern. 
Their acting as court to try impeachments brought by 
the House of Representatives. 

Term of office. Four years. 

Mannerofelection I ^^ presidential electors chosen by 
Manner ot election. < ^^^ ^^^^^^ ^^ ^^^ several states. 

Natural-born citizen of the United 

States. 
Thirty-five years of age. 
Fourteen years' residence in 
United States. 
I To support the Constitution of the 
\ United States. 



Qualifications. 



Qualifications. 



Oath of office. 



1 Amendments, Article XVII. 



THE APPENDIX 



539 



With regard to the f rri^^;* ««,^rv;«j-v,««+^ / ^7 President with the 

Federal Judges, the J ^^^'^ appointments, j iconsent of the Senate. 
Constitution provides | Their number. Fixed by Congress, 

for : L Their term of office. During good behavior. 



The Constitution 
provides for Federal 
courts: 



The Constitution 
provides for Congress: 



{ 



Congress 
has power ; 



The Presi- 
dent's powers: 



The Presi- 
dent's duties : 



One Supreme Court. 

Inferior courts to be established by Congress. 

Ttoe of meeting. { ^S JaTo°"De?ember, 

Quorum. Majority. 

Each house determine its rules of procedure. 

Each house keep a journal. 

Neither house may adjourn for more than three 

days without the consent of the other. 
The method of passing laws. 

To lay taxes.l 
To borrow money. 
To regulate commerce. 

To pass laws to regulate { g.^iruptcj^'" of foreigners. 
To coin money. 

To fix standard of weights and measures. 
To establish post offices. 
To provide for patents and copyrights. 
To declare war. 
To raise and support armies. 
To maintain a navy. 
To provide for a standing army. 
To admit new states. 

To pass laws necessary to carrj'ing out the above 
powers. 

{Army. 
Miiltia in service of the 
United States. 
Grants reprieves and pardons. 

f Makes treaties. 

r Ambassadors. 
A„„^,-„fo J Ministers. 
Appomts ^ Consuls. 

L Federal Judges, 

Send messages to Congress. 

Convene extra sessions of Congress when necessary. 

Receive ambassadors. 

Execute the laws. 



With the consent of 
the Senate, 



1 Amendments, Article XVI. 



540 THE APPENDIX 

THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES* 

PREAMBLE 

We, the people of the United States, in order to form a more perfect 
union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquillity, provide for the 
common defense, promote the general welfare, and secure the blessings 
of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and establish this 
Constitution for the United States of America. 

ARTICLE I 

THE LEGISLATIVE DEPARTMENT 

THE congress: its divisions and powers 

Section i. All legislative powers herein granted shall be vested in 
a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and 
House of Representatives. 

THE house: its composition and powers 

Sec. 2. The House of Representatives shall be composed of mem- 
bers chosen every second year by the people of the several states, and 
the electors in each state shall have the qualifications requisite for elec- 
tors of the most numerous branch of the state legislature. 

No person shall be a representative who shall not have attained to 
the age of twenty-five years, and been seven years a citizen of the United 
States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that state 
in which he shall be chosen. 

(Representatives and direct taxes shall be apportioned among the 
several states which may be included within this Union, according to 
their respective numbers, which shall be determined by adding to the 
whole number of free persons, including those bound to service for a 
term of years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three-fifths of all other 
persons.) The actual enumeration shall be made within three years 
after the first meeting of the Congress of the United States, and within 
every subsequent term of ten years, in such manner as they shall by law 
direct. The number of representatives shall not exceed one for every 
thirty thousand, but each state shall have at least one representative; 
and until such enumeration shall be made the state of New Hampshire 
shall be entitled to choose three; Massachusetts, eight; Rhode Island 
and Providence Plantations, one; Connecticut, five; New York, six; 
New Jersey, four; Pennsylvania, eight; Delaware, one; Maryland, six; 
Virginia, ten; North Carolina, five; South Carolina, five; and Georgia, 
three. 

When vacancies happen in the representation from any state, the 
executive authority thereof shall issue writs of election to fill such vacancies. 

The House of Representatives shall choose their Speaker and other 
officers, and shall have the sole power of impeachment. 

THE senate: its composition and powers 

Sec. 3. The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two 
senators from each state [chosen by the legislature thereof 2], for six years; 
and each senator shall have one vote. 



1 In the use of punctuation and capitals this draft is modern. 

2 The phrase in brackets has been set aside by the XVIIth Amendment. 



THE APPENDIX 541 

Immediately after they shall be assembled in consequence of the first 
election, they shall be divided as equally as may be into three classes. 
The seats of the senators of the first class shall be vacated at the expira- 
tion of the second year; of the second class, at the expiration of the 
fourth year; of the third class, at the expiration of the sixth year, so 
that one-third may be chosen every second year; [and if vacancies hap- 
pen by resignation, or otherwise, during the recess of the legislature of 
any state, the executive thereof may make temporary appointments 
until the next meeting of the legislature, which shall fill such vacancies.^] 

No person shall be a senator who shall not have attained to the age 
of thirty years, and been nine years a citizen of the United States, and 
who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that state for which he 
shall be chosen. 

The Vice-President of the United States shall be president of the 
Senate, but shall have no vote, unless they be equally divided. 

The Senate shall choose their other officers, and also a president pro 
tempore, in the absence of the Vice-President, or when he shall exercise 
the office of President of the United States. 

The Senate shall have the sole power to try all impeachments; when 
sitting for that purpose, they shall be on oath or affirmation. When the 
President of the United States is tried, the Chief Justice shall preside; 
and no person shall be convicted without the concurrence of two-thirds 
of the members present. 

Judgment in cases of impeachment shall not extend further than to 
removal from office, and disqualification to hold and enjoy any office of 
honor, trust, or profit under the United States; but the party convicted 
shall, nevertheless, be liable and subject to indictment, trial, judgment, 
and punishment according to law. 

CONGRESSIONAL ELECTIONS AND DATE OF ASSEMBLING 

Sec. 4. The times, places, and manner of holding elections for sena- 
tors and representatives shall be prescribed in each state by the legislature 
thereof; but the Congress may at any time, by law, make or alter such 
regulations, except as to the places of choosing senators. 

The Congress shall assemble at least once in every year, and such 
meeting shall be on the first Monday in December, tmless they shall by 
law appoint a different day. 

RULES OF PROCEDURE OF SENATE AND HOUSE 

Sec. 5. Each house shall be the judge of the elections, returns, and 
qualifications of its own members, and a majority of each shall consti- 
tute a quorum to do business; but a smaller number may adjourn from 
day to day, and may be authorized to compel the attendance of absent 
members, in such manner and under such penalties as each house may 
provide. 

Each house may determine the rules of its proceedings, punish its 
members for disorderly behavior, and, with the concurrence of two- 
thirds, expel a member. 

Each house shall keep a journal of its proceedings, and from time to 
time publish the same, excepting such parts as may in their judgment 
require secrecy; and the yeas and nays of the members of either house 
on any question shall, at the desire of one-fifth of those present, be entered 
on the journal. 

Neither house, during the session of Congress, shall, without the 

1 The phrase in brackets has been set aside by the XVIIth Amendment. 



542 THE APPENDIX 

consent of the other, adjourn for more than three days, nor to any other 
place than that in which the two houses shall be sitting. 

COMPENSATION AND PRIVILEGES OF MEMBERS 

Sec. 6. The senators and representatives shall receive a compen- 
sationi for their services, to be ascertained by law, and paid out of the 
treasury of the United States. They shall in all cases, except treason, 
felony, and breach of the peace, be privileged from arrest during their 
attendance at the session of their respective houses, and in going to and 
returning from the same; and for any speech or debate in either house, 
they shall not be questioned in any other place. 

No senator or representative shall, during the time for which he 
was elected, be appointed to any civil office under the authority of the 
United States which shall have been created, or the emoluments whereof 
shall have been increased, during such time; and no person holding any 
office under the United States shall be a member of either house during 
his continuance in office. 

methods of legislation 

Sec. 7. All bills for raising revenue shall originate in the House of 
Representatives; but the Senate may propose or concur with amend- 
ments as on other bills. 

Every bill which shall have passed the House of Representatives 
and the Senate shall, before it become a law, be presented to the Presi- 
dent of the United States; if he approve, he shall sign it, but if not, he 
shall return it, with his objections, to that house in which it shall have 
originated, who shall enter the objections at large on their journal, a<id 
proceed to reconsider it. If after such reconsideration two-thirds of that 
house shall agree to pass the bill, it shall be sent, together with the objec- 
tions, to the other house, by which it shall likewise be reconsidered, and if 
approved by two-thirds of that house, it shall become a law. But in all 
such cases the votes of both houses shall be determined by yeas and nays, 
and the names of the persons voting for and against the bill shall be 
entered on the journal of each house respectively. If any bill shall not be 
returned by the President within ten days (Sundays excepted) after it 
shall have been presented to him, the same shall be a law, in like manner 
as if he had signed it, unless the Congress by their adjournment prevent 
its return, in which case it shall not be a law. 

Every order, resolution, or vote to which the concurrence of the 
Senate and House of Representatives may be necessary (except on a 
question of adjournment) shall be presented to the President of the 
United States; and before the same shall take effect, shall be approved 
by him, or being disapproved by him, shall be repassed by two-thirds of 
the Senate and House of Representatives, according to the rules and 
limitations prescribed in the case of a bill. 

POWERS VESTED IN CONGRESS 

Sec. 8. The Congress shall have power: 

To lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts, and excises, to pay the debts 
and provide for the common defense and general welfare of the United 
States; but all duties, imposts, and excises shall be uniform throughout 
the United States; 

To borrow money on the credit of the United States; 

1 Seven thousand five hundred dollars a year, and twenty cents for every mile 
necessary traveled in coming to and returning from the Capital, 



THE APPENDIX 543 

To regulate commerce with foreign nations and among the several 
states, and with the Indian tribes ; 

To establish a uniform rule of naturalization, and uniform laws on 
the subject of bankruptcies throughout the United States ; 

To coin money, regulate the value thereof, and of foreign coin, and 
fix the standard of weights and measures ; 

To provide for the punishment of counterfeiting the securities and 
current coin of the United States ; 

To establish post offices and post roads ; 

To promote the progress of science and useful arts, by securing, for 
limited times, to authors and inventors, the exclusive right to their 
respective writings and discoveries ; 

To constitute tribunals inferior to the Supreme Court ; 

To define and punish piracies and felonies committed on the high 
seas, and offenses against the law of nations ; 

To declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal, and make rules 
concerning captures on land and water ; 

To raise and support armies, but no appropriation of money to that 
use shall be for a longer term than two years ; 

To provide and maintain a navy ; 

To make rules for the government and regulation of the land and 
naval forces ; 

To provide for calling forth the militia to execute the laws of the 
Union, suppress insurrections, and repel invasions ; 

To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining the militia, and 
for governing such part of them as may be employed in the service of 
the United States, reserving to the states, respectively, the appointment 
of the officers and the authority of training the militia according to the 
discipline prescribed by Congress ; 

To exercise exclusive legislation in all cases whatsoever, over such 
district (not exceeding ten miles square) as may, by cession of particular 
states, and the acceptance of Congress, become the seat of the govern- 
ment of the United States, and to exercise like authority over all places 
purchased by the consent of the legislature of the state in which the 
same shall be, for the erection of forts, magazines, arsenals, dockyards, 
and other needful buildings ; and — 

To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying 
into execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers vested by this 
Constitution in the government of the United States, or in any depart- 
ment or officer thereof. 

LIMITS TO POWERS OF THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT 

Sec. 9. The migration or importation of such persons as any of the 
states now existing shall think proper to admit, shall not be prohibited 
by the Congress prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight, 
but a tax or duty may be imposed on such importation, not exceeding 
ten dollars for each person. 

The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not be suspended, 
unless when in case of rebellion or invasion the public safety may 
require it. 

No bill of attainder or ex post facto law shall be passed. 

No capitation or other direct tax shall be laid, unless in proportion 
to the census or enumeration hereinbefore directed to be taken. 

No tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported from any state. 



544 THE APPENDIX 

No preference shall be given by any regulation of commerce or 
revenue to the ports of one state over those of another ; nor shall vessels 
bound to, or from, one state, be obliged to enter, clear, or pay duties in 
another. 

No money shall be drawn from the treasury but in consequence 
of appropriations made by law ; and a regular statement and account of 
the receipts and expenditures of all public money shall be published from 
time to time. 

No title of nobility shall be granted by the United States. And no 
person holding any office of profit or trust under them shall, without the 
consent of the Congress, accept of any present, emolument, office, or 
title, of any kind whatever, from any king, prince, or foreign state. 

LIMITS TO POWERS OF THE STATES 

Sec. io. No state shall enter into any treaty, alliance, or confedera- 
tion ; grant letters of marque and reprisal ; coin money ; emit bills of 
credit ; make anything but gold and silver coin a tender in payment of 
debts ; pass any bill oi attainder, ex post facto law, or law impairing the 
obligation of contracts, or grant any title of nobility. 

No state shall, without the consent of the Congress, lay any imposts 
or duties on imports or exports, except what may be absolutely necessary 
for executing its inspection laws ; and the net produce of all duties and 
imposts, laid by any state on imports or exports, shall be for the use of 
the treasury of the United States ; and all such laws shall be subject to 
the revision and control of the Congress. 

No state shall, without the consent of Congress, lay any duty of ton- 
nage, keep troops, or ships of war, in time of peace, enter into any agree- 
ment or compact with another state, or with a foreign power, or engage 
in war, unless actually invaded, oi in such imminent danger as will not 
admit of delay. 

ARTICLE II 

THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT 

THE EXECUTIVE OFFICERS ; THE ELECTORAL COLLEGE 

Section i. The executive power shall be vested in a President of 
the United States of America. He shall hold his office during the term 
of four years, and, together with, the Vice-President, chosen for the 
same term, be elected, as follows : 

Each state shall appoint, in such manner as the legislature thereof 
may direct, a number of electors, equal to the whole number of senators 
and representatives to which the state may be entitled in the Congress ; 
but no senator or representative, or person holding an office of trust or 
profit under the United States, shall be appointed an elector. 

[The electors shall meet in their respective states and vote by ballot 
for two persons, of whom one at least shall not be an inhabitant of the 
same state with themselves. And they shall make a list of all the persons 
voted for, and of the number of votes for each ; which list they shall 
sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of the government of 
the United States, directed to the president of the Senate. The presi- 
dent of the Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and House of 
Representatives, open all the certificates, and the votes shall then be 
counted. The person having the greatest number of votes shall be the 
President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors 
appointed ; and if there be more than one who have such majority, and 



THE APPENDIX 545 

have an equal number of votes, then the House of Representatives shall 
immediately choose by ballot one of them for President ; and if no 
person have a majority, then from the five highest on the list the said 
house shall, in like manner, choose the President. But in choosing 
the President the votes shall be taken by states, the representation 
from each state having one vote ; a quorum for this purpose shall consist 
of a member or members from two-thirds of the states, and a majority 
of all the states shall be necessary to a choice. In every case, after the 
choice of the President, the person having the greatest number of votes 
of the electors shall be the Vice-President. But if there should remain 
two or more who have equal votes, the Senate shall choose from them by 
ballot the Vice-President.'] 

The Congress may determine the time of choosing the electors, and 
the day on which they shall give their votes ; which day shall be the 
same throughout the United States. 

No person except a natural-born citizen, or a citizen of the United 
States at the time of the adoption of this Constitution, shall be eligible 
to the office of President ; neither shall any person be eligible to that 
office who shall not have attained to the age of thirty-five years, and 
been fourteen years a resident within the United States. 

In case of the removal of the President from office, or of his death, 
resignation, or inability to discharge the powers and duties of the said 
office, the same shall devolve on the Vice-President, and the Congress 
may by law provide for the case of removal, death, resignation, or ina- 
bility, both of the President and Vice-President, declaring what officer 
shall then act as President ; and such officer shall act accordingly, until 
the disability be removed, or a President shall be elected. 

The President shall, at stated times, receive for his services a com- 
pensation^ which shall neither be increased nor diminished during the 
period for which he shall have been elected, and he shall not receive 
within that period any other emolument from the United States, or any 
of them. 

Before he enter on the execution of his office, he shall take the 
following oath or affirmation : " I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I 
will faithfully execute the office of President of the United States, and 
will, to the best of my ability, preserve, protect, and defend the Consti- 
tution of the United States. " 

POWERS GRANTED TO THE PRESIDENT 

Sec. 2. The President shall be commander-in-chief of the army and 
navy of the United States, and of the militia of the several states, when 
called into the actual service of the United States ; he may require the 
opinion, in writing, of the principal officer in each of the executive 
departments, upon any subject relating to the duties of their respective 
offices ; and he shall have power to grant reprieves and pardons for 
offenses against the United States, except in cases of impeachment. 

He shall have^ power, by and with the advice and consent of the 
Senate, to make treaties, provided two-thirds of the senators present 
concur ; and he shall nominate, and by and with the advice and consent 
of the Senate shall appoint, ambassadors, other public ministers dnd 
consuls, judges of the Supreme Court, and all other officers of the United 
States whose appointments are not herein otherwise provided for, and 

1 The paragraph in brackets has been set aside by the Xllth Amendment. 

2 The President receives $75,000 a year, and $25,000 additional for traveling ex- 
penses; the Vice-President receives $12,000 a year. 

19 



546 THE APPENDIX 

which shall be established by law ; but the Congress may by law vest 
the appointment of such inferior officers as they think proper in the 
President alone, in the courts of law, or in the heads of departments. 

The President shall have power to fill up vacancies that may happen 
during the recess of the Senate, by granting commissions which shall 
expire at the end of their next session. 

THE president's DUTIES 

Oec. 3. He shall from time to time give to the Congress information 
of the state of the Union, and recommend to their consideration such 
measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient ; he may, on extraor- 
dinary occasions, convene both houses, or either of them, and in case 
of disagreement between them, with respect to the time of adjournment, 
he may adjourn them to such time as he shall think proper; he shall 
receive ambassadors and other public ministers ; he shall take care that 
the laws be faithfully executed, and shall commission all the officers of 
the United States. 

IMPEACHMENT OF EXECUTIVE AND CIVIL OFFICERS 

Sec. 4. The President, Vice-President, and all civil officers of the 
United States, shall be removed from office on impeachment for, and 
conviction of, treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors. 

ARTICLE III 
THE JUDICIAL DEPARTMENT 

THE FEDERAL COURTS — SUPREME AND INFERIOR 

Section i. The judicial power of the United States shall be vested 
in one Supreme Court, and in such inferior courts as the Congress may 
from time to time ordain and establish. The judges, both of the Supreme 
and inferior courts, shall hold their offices during good behavior, and 
shall, at stated times, receive for their services a compensation which 
shall not be diminished during their continuance in office. 

POWERS AND JURISDICTION OF THE FEDERAL COURTS 

Sec. 2. The judicial power shall extend to all cases, in law and 
equity, arising under this Constitution, the laws of the United States, 
and treaties made, or which shall be made, under their authority ; to all 
cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers, and consuls ; to all 
cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction ; to controversies to which 
the United States shall be a party ; to controversies between two or more 
states ; between a state and citizens of another state ; between citizens 
of different states ; between citizens of the same state claiming lands 
under grants of different states, and between a state, or the citizens 
thereof, and foreign states, citizens, or subjects. 

In all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers, and con- 
suls, and those in which a state shall be a party, the Supreme Court 
shall have original jurisdiction. In all the other cases before mentioned, 
the Supreme Court shall have appellate jurisdiction, both as to law and 
fact, with such exceptions and under such regulations as the Congress 
shall make. 

The trial of all crimes, except in cases of impeachment, shall be by 
jury ; and such trial shall be held in the state where the said crimes shall 
have been committed ; but when not committed within any state, the 
trial shall be at such place or places as the Congress may by law have 
directed. 



THE APPENDIX 547 

TREASON : ITS NATURE AND PUNISHMENT 

Sec. 3. Treason aorainst the United States shall consist only in 
levying war against them, or in adhering to their enemies, giving them 
aid and comfort. No person shall be convicted of treason unless on the 
testimony of two witnesses to the same overt act, or on confession in 
open court. 

The Congress shall have power to declare the punishment of treason, 
but no attainder of treason shall work corruption of blood, or forfeiture, 
except during the life of the person attainted. 

ARTICLE IV 
RELATIONS OF THE STATE AND FEDERAL GOVERNMENTS 

RECOGNITION OF STATE AUTHORITY 

Section 1. Full faith and credit shall be given in each state to 
the public acts, records, and judicial proceedings of every other state. 
And the Congress may, by general laws, prescribe the manner in which 
such acts, records, and proceedings shall be proved, and the effect thereot. 

LAWS regarding CITIZENS OF THE STATES 

Sec. 2. The citizens of each state shall be entitled to all privileges 
and immunities of citizens in the several states. 

A person charged in any state with treason, felony, or other crime, 
who shall flee from justice, and be found in another state, shall, on 
demand of the executive authority of the state from which he fled, be 
delivered up, to be removed to the state having jurisdiction of the crime. 

No person held to service or labor in one state, under the laws thereof, 
escaping into another, shall in consequence of any law or regulation 
therein, be discharged from such service or labor, but shall be delivered 
up on claim of the party to whom such service or labor may be due. 

ADMISSION OF STATES AND REGULATION OF UNITED STATES TERRITORIES 

Sec. 3. New states may be admitted by the Congress into this 
Union ; but no new state shall be formed or erected within the jurisdic- 
tion of any other state ; nor any state be formed by the junction of two 
or more states, or parts of states, without the consent of the legislatures 
of the states concerned as well as of the Congress. 

The Congress shall have power to dispose of and make all needful 
rules and regulations respecting the territory or other property belonging 
to the United States ; and nothing in this Constitution shall be so con- 
strued as to prejudice any claims of the United States, or of any partic- 
ular state. 

PROTECTION GUARANTEED BY THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT 

Sec. 4. The United States shall guarantee to every state in this 
Union a republican form of government, and shall protect each of them 
against invasion ; and on application of the legislature, or of the Execu- 
tive (when the legislature cannot be convened), against domestic violence. 

ARTICLE V 

POWER AND METHOD OF AMENDING THE CONSTITUTION 

The Congress, whenever two-thirds of both houses shall deem it 
necessary, shall propose amendments to this Constitution, or, on the 
application of the legislatures of two-thirds of the several states, shall 



548 THE APPENDIX 

call a convention for proposing amendments, which, in either case, shall 
be valid to all intents and purposes, as part of this Constitution, when 
ratified by the legislatures of three-fourths of the several states, or by 
conventions in three-fourths thereof, as the one or the other mode of 
ratification may be proposed by the Congress ; provided that no amend- 
ment which may be made prior to the year one thousand eight hundred 
and eight shall in any manner affect the first and fourth clauses in the 
ninth section of the first article ; and that no state, without its consent, 
shall be deprived of its equal suffrage in the Senate. 

ARTICLE VI 

PUBLIC DEBTS; THE SUPREME LA'W ; OATH OF OFFICE ; 
RELIGIOUS TEST PROHIBITED 

All debts contracted and engagements entered into before the adop- 
tion of this Constitution shall be as valid against the United States 
under this Constitution as under the confederation. 

This Constitution, and the laws of the United States which shall be 
made in pursuance thereof ; and all treaties made, or which shall be 
made, under the authority of the United States, shall be the supreme 
law of the land ; and the judges in every state shall be bound thereby, 
anything in the Constitution or laws of any state to the contrary 
notwithstanding. 

The senators and representatives before mentioned, and the members 
of the several state legislatures, and all executive and judicial officers, 
both of the United States and of the several states, shall be bound by 
oath or affirmation to support this Constitution ; but no religious test 
shall ever be required as a qualification to any office or public trust 
under the United States. 

ARTICLE VII 
RATIFICATION AND ESTABLISHMENT OF THE CONSTITUTION 

The ratification of the conventions of nine states shall be sufficient 
for the establishment of this Constitution between the states so ratifying 
the same. 
Done in convention by the unanimous consent of the states present, the 

seventeenth day of September, in the year of our Lord one thousand 

seven hundred and eighty-seven, and of the independence of the 

United States of America the twelfth. 
In witness whereof, we have hereunto subscribed our names, 




Deputy froiiL Virginia 

Neiv Hampshire 

John Langdon Connecticut 

Nicholas Oilman William Samuel Johnson 

,. , ^. Roger Sherman 

Massachusetts ° 

Nathaniel Gorham New York 

Rufus King Alexander Hamilton 



THE APPENDIX 549 

New Jersey Maryland 

William Livingston J?"^?s McHenry 

David Brearley Daniel Jenifer of St. Thomas 

William Paterson Daniel Carroll 
Jonathan Dayton Virginia 

Pennsylvania John Blair 

■D • • -o IT James Madison, Jun, 

Benjamin Frankbn •" ,t r V; 7- 

Thomas Mifflin „,.„. ^orth Carolina 

Robert Morris William Blount 

George Clymer Richard Dobbs Speight 

Thomas Fitzsimons Hugh Williamson 
Jared Ingersoll South Carolina , 

James Wilson John Rutledge 

Gouvemeur Morris Charles Cotesworth Pinckney 

Delaware Charles Pinckney 

r^ TD J Pierce Butler 

George Read 

Gunning Bedford, Jun. „,.„. Georgia 

John Dickinson Wilham Few _ 

Richard Bassett Abraham Baldwin 

Jacob Broom Attest: William Jackson, Secretary 

AMENDMENTS 

Articles in addition to, and amendment of, the Constitution of the 
United States of America, proposed by Congress, and ratified by the 
legislatures of the several states pursuant of the fifth article of the orig- 
inal Constitution. ARTICLE!' 

FREEDOM OF RELIGION AND SPEECH ; RIGHT OF ASSEMBLY 
Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, 
or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of 
speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, 
and to petition the government for a redress of grievances. 

ARTICLE II 

RIGHT TO BEAR ARMS 

A well-regulated militia being necessary to the security of a free 
state, the right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be 
^^^""^ed. ARTICLE III 

QUARTERING OF TROOPS 

No soldier shall, in time of peace, be quartered in any house without 
the consent of the owner ; nor in time of war but in a manner to be pre- 
scribed by law. ARTICLE IV 

RIGHT OF SEARCH PROHIBITED 

The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, 
and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be 

iThe first ten amendments were proposed in 1789, and adopted before the close 
of 17Q1. They were to "more efficiently guard certain rights already provided for 
in the Constitution, or to prohibit certain exercises of authority supposed to be 
dangerous to the public interests." 



SSO THE APPENDIX 

violated, and no warrants shall issue but upon probable cause, sup- 
ported by oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to 
be searched, and the persons or things to be seized. 

ARTICLE V 
RIGHT TO TRIAL BY JURY 
No person shall be held to answer for a capital or otherwise infa- 
mous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a grand jury, 
except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the militia, 
when in actual service in time of war and public danger ; nor shall any 
person be subject for the same offense to be twice put in jeopardy of 
life and limb ; nor shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a wit- 
ness against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, with- 
out due process of law ; nor shall private property be taken for public 
use, without just compensation. 

ARTICLE VI 

RIGHTS OF ACCUSED IN CRIMINAL CASES 
In all criminal prosecutions the accused shall enjoy the right to a 
speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the state and district 
wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have 
been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature 
and cause of the accusation ; to be confronted with the witnesses against 
him ; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor, 
and to have the assistance of counsel for his defense. 

ARTICLE VII 

SUITS AT COMMON LAAV 

In suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed 
twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no fact 
tried by a jury shall be otherwise reexamined in any court of the United 
States than according to the rules of common law. 

ARTICLE VIII 

BAIL AND FINES 

Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor 
cruel and unusual punishments inflicted. 

ARTICLE IX 

MODIFICATION OF ENUMERATED RIGHTS 

The enumeration in the Constitution of certain rights shall not be 
construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people. 

ARTICLE X 

POWERS RESERVED TO STATES AND THE PEOPLE 

The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, 
nor prohibited by it to the states, are reserved to the states respectively, 
or to the people. ARTICLE XI' 

LIMITATION TO POWER OF THE FEDERAL COURTS 

The judicial power of the United States shall not be construed to 
extend to any suit in law or equity, commenced or prosecuted against 
one of the United States by citizens of another state, or by citizens or 
subjects of any foreign state. 

J Adopted in 1798. 



THE APPENDIX S5l 

ARTICLE XII « 

NEW ELECTORAL LAW 

The electors shall meet in their respective states and vote by ballot 
for President and Vice-President, one of whom, at least, shall not be an 
inhabitant of the same state with themselves ; they shall name in their 
ballots the person voted for as President, and in distinct ballots the 
person voted for as Vice-President ; and they shall make distinct lists of 
all persons voted for as President, and of all persons voted for as Vice- 
President, and of the number of votes for each, which lists they shall 
sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of the government of 
the United States, directed to the President of the Senate ; the President 
of the Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and House of Repre- 
sentatives, open all the certificates, and the votes shall then be counted ; 
the person having the greatest number of votes for President shall be 
the President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of 
electors appointed ; and if no person have such majority, then from the 
persons having the highest numbers not exceeding three on the list of 
those voted for as President, the House of Representatives shall choose 
immediately, by ballot, the President. But in choosing the President, 
the vote shall be taken by states, the representation from each state 
having one vote. A quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or 
members from two-thirds of the states, and a majority of all the states 
shall be necessary to a choice. And if the House of Representatives 
shall not choose a President whenever the right of choice shall devolve 
upon them, before the fourth day of March next following, then the 
Vice-President shall act as President, as m the case of the death or 
other constitutional disability of the President. The person havmg the 
greatest number of votes as Vice-President shall be the Vice-President, 
if such number be a majority of the whole number ot electors appointed ; 
and if no person have a majority, then from the two highest numbers 
on the list the Senate shall choose the Vice-President. A quorum for the 
purpose shall consist of two-thirds of the whole number of senators, and 
a majority of the whole number shall be necessary to a choice. But 
no person constitutionally ineligible to the office of President shall be 
eligible to that of Vice-President of the United States. 

ARTICLE XIIP 

ABOLITION OF SLAVERY 

SLAVERY AND INVOLUNTARY SERVITUDE PROHIBITED 

Section i. Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a 
punishment for crime, whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, 
shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to their 
jurisdiction. 

Sec. 2. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appro- 
priate legislation. 

ARTICLE XIV 3 

NEW LAWS MADE NECESSARY BY THE CIVIL WAR 

QUALIFICATIONS FOR CITIZENSHIP 

Section i. All persons born or naturalized in the United States, 
and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States 
and of the state wherein they reside. No state shall make or enforce 

1 Adopted in 1804. 2 Adopted in 1865. 3 Adopted in 1868. 



552 THE APPENDIX 

any law which shall abridge the privileges of immunities of citizens of 
the United States; nor shall any state deprive any person of life, liberty, 
or property, without due process of law; nor deny to any person within 
its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws. 

APPORTIONMENT OF REPRESENTATIVES 

Sec. 2. Representatives shall be appointed among the several states 
according to their respective numbers, counting the whole number of 
persons in each state, excluding Indians not taxed. But when the right 
to vote at any election for the choice of electors for President and Vice- 
President of the United States, representatives in Congress, the execu- 
tive or judicial oflficers of a state, or the members of the legislature thereof, 
is denied to any of the male inhabitants of such state, being twenty-one 
years of age, and citizens of the United States, or in any way abridged, 
except for participation in rebellion, or other crime, the basis of repre- 
sentation therein shall be reduced in the proportion which the number 
of such male citizens shall bear to the whole number of male citizens 
twenty-one years of age in such state. 

DISABILITY FOR BREAKING OATH OF OFFICE 

Sec. 3. No person shall be a senator, or representative in Congress, 
or elector of President or Vice-President, or hold any office, civil or mili- 
tary, under the United States, or under any state, who, having previ- 
ously taken an oath as a member of Congress, or as an officer of the United 
States, or as a member of any state legislature, or as an executive or 
judicial officer of any state, to support the Constitution of the United 
States, shall have engaged in insurrection or rebellion against the same, 
or given aid or comfort to the enemies thereof. But Congress may, 
by a vote of two-thirds of each house, remove such disability. 

THE PUBLIC DEBT 

Sec. 4. The validity of the public debt of the United States, author- 
ized by law, including debts incurred for payment of pensions and bounties 
for services in suppressing insurrection or rebellion, shall not be ques- 
tioned. But neither the United States nor any state shall assume or 
pay any debt or obligation incurred in aid of insurrection or rebellion 
against the United States, or any claim for the loss or emancipation 
of any slave; but all such debts, obligations, and claims shall be held 
illegal and void. 

Sec. 5. Congress shall have power to enforce, by appropriate legis- 
lation, the provisions of this article. 

ARTICLE XVI 

RIGHT OF SUFFRAGE 
RIGHT GUARANTEED TO ALL CITIZENS 

Section i. The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall 
not be denied or abridged by the United States, or by any state, on account 
of race, color, or previous condition of servitude. 

Sec. 2. Congress shall have power to enforce this axticle by appro- 
priate legislation. 

1 Adopted in 1870. 



THE APPENDIX 553 

ARTICLE XVII 

INCOME TAX 

The Congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes on incomes, 
from whatever source derived, without apportionment among the several 
states and without regard to any census or enumeration. 

ARTICLE XVII' 
DIRECT ELECTION OF SENATORS 

The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two senators 
from each state, elected by the people thereof for six years; and each 
senator shall have one vote. The electors in each state shall have the 
qualifications requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of the 
state legislatures. 

When vacancies happen in the representation of any state in the 
senate, the executive authority of each state shall issue writs of election 
to fill such vacancies; Provided, That the legislature of any state may 
empower the executive thereof to make temporary appointments until 
the people fill the vacancies by election as the legislature may direct. 

This amendment shall not be so construed as to affect the election 
or term of any senator chosen before it becomes valid as part of the 
Constitution. 

ARTICLE XVIII 2 
PROHIBITION 

Section i. After one year from the ratification of this article the 
manufacture, sale, or transportation of intoxicating liquors with the 
importation thereof, or exportation thereof from the United States and 
all territory subject to the jurisdiction thereof, for beverage purposes is 
hereby prohibited. 

Sec. 2. The Congress and the several states shall have concurrent 
power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation. 

Sec. 3. This article shall be inoperative unless it shall have been 
ratified as an amendment to the constitution by the legislatures of 
the several states, as provided in the constitution, within seven years from 
the date of the submission hereof to the states by the Congress. 

ARTICLE XIX 3 

WOMAN SUFFRAGE 

The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied 
by the United States or any state on account of sex. 

1 Adopted 1913. 2 Adopted 1919. 3 Adopted 1920. 



554 THE APPENPIX 

A TABLE OF THE STATES AND TERRITORIES. 



Dates 



1787, 


Dec. 


7 


1787. 


Dec. 


12 


1787. 


Dec. 


18 


1788, 


Jan. 


2 


1788, 


Jan. 





1788, 


Feb. 


6 


1788, 


April 


28 


1788, 


May 


2,1 


1788, 


June 


21 


1788, 


June 


2S 


1788, 


lulv 


26 


I78Q. 


Nov. 


2T 


1790, 


May 


2Q 


I79I. 


March 


4 


1792, 


June 


I 


1706, 


June 
Feb. 


I 


i8o,^. 


10 


1812 


April 


^o 


1816, 


Dec. 


T T 


1817, 


Dec. 


10 


1818, 


Dec. 


S 


1819, 


Dec. 


14 


1820, 


March 


IS 


1821, 


Aug. 


10 


1836, 


June 


!■; 


18,17. 


Jan. 


26 


I845 


March 


^ 


1845. 


Dec. 


2Q 


1846, 


Dec. 


28 


1848, 


May 


20 


l8,SO, 


Sept. 





I8s8, 


May 


II 


i8,=;9. 


Feb. 


14 


1861, 


Jan. 


2Q 


1863, 


[une 


IQ 


1864, 


Oct. 


M 


1S67. 


March 


I 


1876, 


Aug. 


I 


1889, 


Nov. 


2 


1889, 


Nov. 


2 


1889, 


Nov. 


8 


1889, 


Nov. 


II 


1890, 


lulv 


s 


1890, 


luly 


10 


1896, 


Jan. 


4 


1907, 


Nov. 


16 


1912, 


Jan. 


6 


1912, 


Feb. 


14 


1868, 


July 


27 


1791, 


March 


3 


1900, 


June 


14 



Under Civil 
Government 



No. 



23 
24 

25 

26 
27 
28 
29 

30 
31 
32 
33 
34 
35 
36 
37 
38 
39 
40 
41 
42 
43 
44 
45 
46 
47 
48 



Name 



Delaware 

Pennsylvania 

New Jersey 

Georgia 

Connecticut 

Massachusetts 

Maryland 

South Carolina 

New Hampshire 

Virginia 

New York 

North Carolina 

Rhode Island 

Vermont 

Kentucky 

Tennessee 

Ohio 

Louisiana 

Indiana 

Mississippi 

Illinois 

Alabama 

Maine 

Missouri 

Arkansas 

Michigan 

Florida 

Texas 

Iowa 

Wisconsin 

California 

Minnesota . 

Oregon 

Kansas 

West Virginia 

Nevada 

Nebraska 

Colorado 

North Dakota 

South Dakota 

Montana 

Washington 

Idaho 

Wyoming 

Utah 

Oklahoma 

New Mexico 

Arizona 

Alaska 

District of Columbia 

Hawaii 

Porto Rico 

Philippines 

Guam 

Panama Canal Zone 

American Samoa 

Virgin Islands 



Area in 
Square 
Miles ' 



965 

832 
S14 
725 
820 

039 
941 
495 
031 
262 
654 
740 
067 
124 
181 
687 
740 
409 
045 
362 
043 
,279 
,895 
,727 
,525 
,480 
,861 
,39s 
,586 
,256 
.652 
,85s 
,607 
.774 
,022 
,821 
,808 
.658 
,183 
,868 
,201 
,836 
.354 
.594 
,184 
.414 
.503 
,810 
,8843 

60 
.4493 
4353 

0264 
225 
436 

93 
I49''' 



Population 
in 1920 - 



223, 

8,720, 

3. 155 

2,895 

1,380 

3,852 

1.449 

1,683 

443 

2.309 

10,384, 

2,559 

604 

352 

2,416 

2,337 

5.759 

1,798 

2.930 

1,790 

6,485 

2,348 

768 

3.404 

1.752 

3.668 

968 

4,663 

2,404 

2,632 

3.426 

2.387 

783 

1.769 

1.463 

77 

1.296 

939 

64s 

636 

548 

1.356 

431 

94 

449 

2,028 

360 

3i3 

54' 

437. 

255 

299 

10,350, 

13. 



26 



003 

,017 

,900 

,832 

,531 

,356 

,661 

,724 

,083 

,187 

,829 

.123 

,397 

,428 

,630 

,88s 

.394 

,509 

,390 

,6x8 

,280 

.174 

,014 

,055 

,204 

,412 

,470 

,228 

,021 

,067 

,861 

,125 

.389 

.257 

.701 

.407 

.372 

.629 

,680 

.547 

.889 

.621 

,866 

.402 

.396 

.283 

350 

903 

.899 

571 

,912 

809 

6405 

275 

858 

056 

0516 



Density of 
PoputatioQ 

in 1920 
per itqu&re 

mile) 2 



II3S 

194 5 

420.0 

49-3 

286.4 

479.2 

145.8 

55.2 

49.1 

57.4 

217.9 

52. 5 

566 4 

38.6 

60.4 

56 

141-4 

39 6 

81.3 

38.6 

IIS 7 

45.8 

25.7 

49 5 

33 3 

63.8 

17 .6 

17.8 

43-2 

47.6 

22 .0 

29 S 

8.2 

6 

9 

07 

16 9 

90 

9.2 

8.3 

30 

20.3 

S.2 
19 

55 
29.2 
29 
29 
0.1 



60 



7292. 
39 
378. 
90. 
59. 
52. 



■ 4 
.6 
174-8 



1 Actual land area, excluding water. Fourteenth Census of the United States: 1920, 
Bulletin. 

2 Fourteenth Census of the United States. 

3 Aggregate area (land and inclosed water). 

4 Statistical Abstract of the United States, I9I9- 

5 Figures refer to December 19 18. 

6 Figures refer to November 1917. 



THE APPENDIX 

GROWTH OF THE UNITED STATES^ 



555 



Showing the Steady Increase in the Percentage of Toivn and City Population 



Census Years 



1790. 
1800. 
1810. 
1820. 
1830. 
1840. 
1850. 
i860. 
1870. 
1880. 
1890. 
1900. 
1910 . 
1920. 









Number 


Total 


Population 
Living in 
Cities 3 


Percentage 
of Popula- 


of Cities 
of 8.0110 


Population - 


tion Living 
in Cities 


InhaWt. 
ant8 3 


3,929.214 


131.472 


3-4 


6 


5.308,483 


210,873 


4.0 


6 


7.239.881 


356,920 


4.9 


1 1 


9.638,453 


475.135 


4.9 


13 


12,866,020 


864,509 


6.7 


2t) 


17,069,453 


1,453,994 


8.5 


44 


23,191.876 


2,897,586 


12. i 


85 


31,443,321 


5,072,256 


16. 1 


141 


38,558.371 


8,071,875 


20.9 


226 


50,155,783 


11,318,547 


22.6 


286 


62,622,250 


18,272,503 


29.2 


447 


75.477.467 


24,992,199 


33-1 


545 


91 ,972,266-1 


38.s17.727 


41.8 


1.232 


105,708,771* 


50,444,090 


47-7 


1.605 



1 From Twelfth, Thirteenth and Fourteenth Census of the United States. 

2 Exclusive of Indian Territory, Indian reservations, and insular possessions. 

3 Places of 8,000 inhabitants or more are here designated as cities exce^, in 1910, 

and 192a, where 5,000 is taken as the limit. 
4. Exclusive of outlying possessions. 

GROSS AREA OF THE UNITED STATES i 

Including hand and Water 



Census Years 



1790 

1800 

181 o( Louisiana purchase ,1803) 
i82o(Florida cession, 1819) . . . 

1830 

1840 

i85o(Texas accession, i845,and 

Mexican cession, 1S48). . . 

i86o(Gadsden purchase, 185 3). 

i87o(Alaska purchase, 1867).. 

1880 

1890 



Gross Area 

in Square 

Miles 



827,844 
827,844 
1.999.775 
2,059,043 
2,059,043 
2,059,043 

2.980,959 
3,025,600 
3,616,484 
3,616,484 
3,616,484 



Census Years 



1900 Hawaii (annexed, 1 898) 3,742,870 
Porto Rico (ceded by 

Spain, 1899) 
Guam (ceded by Spain, 

1899) 
Philippines (purchased 

from Spain, 1899) 
Samoa (by treaty with 
Great Britain and 
Germany, 1900) 
1910 Panama CanalZone (by. 3,743,3442 
treaty with Panama, 
1904) I 



Gross Area 

in Square 

Miles 



1 Based on the Twelfth Census of the United States, Vol. I., p. XXXII. 

2 From U. S. Department of Interior, Bulletin No. 302. 

FACTS ABOUT OUR DEPENDENCIES 



Name 



Hawaii . . . 
PortoRico. 
Guam... . . . 

Philippines 

American 
Samoa. . . . 

Panama 
Canal Zone 

Virgin 
Islands .... 



How Acquired 



Annexed 

■ Ceded by Spain 

By purchase f 

from Spain.. . j 

^Treaty with) 

Great Britain V 

' and, Germany j 

I Treaty with Re- ) 

public of Pan- v 



By purchase ' 
from Denmark I 



When 
Acquired 



July 6, 1898 
Feb. 6, 1899 
Feb. 16, 1900 
Feb. 23, 1904 
Feb. 19, 1917 



Government 



Territory 

i Civil Govern- 
ment by Con- 

I grass 

( Civil Govem- 
-j ment by Con- 

( gress 

j Civil Govem- 
< ment by Con- 
( gress 

( Civil Govern- ") 
J ment by Con- '. 
I gress ^ 



Area in 
Square 
Miles 1 



6,449 

3.435 
2252 
115,026 



436 



Popula- 
tion 



,299,809 

13.275 

,350,6403 

8,056 



22,858 



26,051* 



1 From Abstract of Thirteenth Census. 

2 Fourteenth Census of the United States, Bulletin. 

3 Figures refer to December 19 18. 

4 Figures refer to November 1917. 



556 



"^ 

Q 
I — I 

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THE APPENDIX 




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A PRONOUNCING INDEX 



Webster's New International Dictionary has been used as the 
authority for spelHng and pronunciation, except in the case of certain 
foreign names, where the Century Dictionary of Names has been 
used. 



Acadia (d-ka'di-d) 
Aguinaldo (a-'ge-nal'do) 
Alamo (a'la-mo) 
Albany (ol'bd-ni) 
Albemarle (al'b^-marl) 
Alexandria (al'eg-zan'dri-d) 
Algonquin (al-goN'kin) 
Allegheny (al'^-ga'ni) 
Alsace-Lorraine (al-sas'-16'ran') 
Americus Vespiicius (d-mer'i-kws 

ves-pu'shiis) 
Amherst (am'erst) 
Amiens (a'myaN') 
Andre (an'dra) 
■Andres (an'dros) 
Annapolis (a-nap'6-Ms) 
A ntietam (an-te'tdm) 
Appalachian (ap'd-lach'i-an) 
Appomattox (ap'6-mat'zJks) 
Argonne (ar'gon') 
Arkansas (ar'kdn-s6') 
Armada (ar-ma'dd) 
Assumption (d-siimp'shMn) 
Astoria (as-to'ri-d) 
Aztecs (az'teks) 
Bahama (bd-ha'md) 
Balboa (bal-bo'a) 
Baltimore (bol'ti-mor) 
Barnard (bar'ndrd) 
Bartram (bar'tram) 
Belcher (bel'cher) 
Bergen (bur'gcn) 
Biloxi (bi-lok'si) 
Birney (blir'nl) 



Bismarck (biz'mark) 

Bolivar (bol'i-vdr) 

Bon Homme Richard (bo-nom' 

rS-shar') 
Burgoyne (bur-goin') 
Cabot, Sebastian (sfe-bas'chdn 

kah'tit) 
Cahokia (kd-ho'ki-d) 
Calhoun (kal-hoon') 
Carnegie (kar-neg'i) 
Carranza (kar-ran'tha) 
Carteret (kar'ter-et) 
Cartier (kar'tya') 
Caytiga (ka-yoo'gd) 
Cervera (ther-va'ra) 
Champlain (sham'plan') 
Chateau- Thierry (sha'to'-tye'r^') 
Chatham (chat'cm) 
Chattanooga (chat'd-noo'gd) 
Chesapeake (ches'd-pek) 
Chickamauga (chik'd-mo'gd) 
Chillicothe (chil'i-koth'S) 
Chippewa (chip'e-wa) 
Cibola (se'bo-lo) 
Cincinnati (sin'si-nat'i) 
Claiborne (kla'bom) 
Clemens (klem'cnz) 
Colombia (ko-lom'be-a) 
Constantinople (kon-stan'ti-no'p'l) 
Corinth (kor'inth) 
Cornwallis (korn-wSl'is) 
Coronado (ko'ro-na'tbo) 
Cortereal (kor-ta'rd-al') 
Cortez (k6r'tez) 



557 



558 



A PRONOUNCING INDEX 



Creole (kre'ol) 
Crittenden (krit'' n-den) 
Da Gama (da ga'ma) 
Dart7noiith (dart'mMth) 
De Grasse (de gras') 
De Kalb (de kalb') 
De Lesseps (de le'seps') 
De Soto (dfe so'to) 
Deutschland (doicli'lant) 
Dias (de'ash) 
Diaz (de'as) 
Dubuque (ddo-buk') 
Duquesne (doo-kan') 
El Caney (el ka'na) 
Elmira (el-ml'rd) 
El Paso (el pa'so) 
Endicott (en'di-kot) 
Ericson, Leif (lef er'ik-SMn) 
Eutaw (u'to) 
Fabius {is.'hi-iis) 
Faneuil (fan' '1) 
Farragut (far'4-gut) 
Fenian (fe'ni-an) 
Foch (fosh) 

Frederica (fred'er-e'kd) 
Fremont (fre-mont') 
Gadsden (gadz'den) 
Gallatin (gal'd-tin) 
Galveston (gal'ves-tim) 
Gaspee (gas'pa') 
Genoa (jen'6-d) 
Gerry (ger'i) 
Gettysburg (get'iz-burg) 
Ghent (gent) 
Gibraltar (ji-brol'ter) 
Gomez (go 'mas) 
Gompers (gom'perz) 
Gorges (gdr'jes) 
Guam (gwam) 
Giierriere (gar-ryar') 
Guiana (ge-a'nd) 
Guilford (gil'ferd) 



Gustavus Adolphus (gus-ta'vMS 

d-dol'fws) 
Hague (hag) 
Haiti (ha'ti) 
Harte (hart) 
Haverhill (ha'ver-fl) 
Hawaii (ha-wi'e) 
Hay-Pauncefote (ha-p6ns'foot) 
Hennepin (hen'e-pin) 
Herkimer (hijr'kl-mer) 
Hessian (hesh'an) 
Holyoke (hol'yok) 
Huerta (wer'ta) 
Huguenot (hu'ge-not) 
mini (il'i-ni') 
Inca (ing'kd) 
Iroquois (ir'6-kwoi') 
Jamaica (jd-ma'kd) 
Jewett, (joo'et) 
Joaquin (wa-ken') 
Joliet (zho'lya') 
Kanawha (kd no'wd) 
Kaskaskia (kas-kas'ki-d) 
Kearney (kar'ni) 
Kearsarge (ker'sarj) 
Kenesaw (ken-e-s6') 
Kennebec (ken'e-bek') 
Kosciusco (kos'i-us'ko) 
Ku-Klux (ku'kluks') 
Laclede (Id-kled') 
Ladrones (Id-dronz') 
Lafayette (la'fa-yet') 
LaFollette (la fol'et) 
Lanier (Id-ner') 
La Plata (la pla'td) 
La Salle (la sal') 
Laurens (16'rens) 
Lecompton (le-k6mp'ttm) 
Leiden (li'den) 
Leisler (lis'ler) 
Louisbiirg (loo'is-burg) 
Louisiana (loo-e'ze-an'd) 



A PRONOUNCING INDEX 



559 



^Lusitania (lu-si-ta'ni-d) 
McAdoo (mak'd-dc3o') 
McClellan (md-klel'dn) 
McCormick (md-kor'mik) 
McDonough (mdk-don'o) 
Macedonian (mas'e-do'ni-dn) 
Madero (md-da'ro) 
Magellan (md-jel'dn) 
Magna Charta (mag'nd kar'td) 
Manassas (md-nas'ds) 
Manhattan (man-hat'dn) 
Marco Polo (mar'ko po'lo) 
Marietta (ma'ri-et'd) 
Marne (mam) 
Marquette (mar'ket') 
Massasoit (mas'd-soit') 
Maximiliati (mak'si-mil'ydn) 
Mecklenburg (mek'len-burg) 
Mediterranean (med'i-ter-a'ne-dn) 
Memphis (mem'fis) 
Minuit (min'u-!t) 
Mobile (mo-bel') 
Mohammed (mo-ham'ed) 
Montcalm (mont-kam') 
Montreal (mont're-ol') 
Moultrie (mol'tri) 
Murfreesboro (mur'frez-bur-6) 
Napoleon Bonaparte (nd-po'le-;ni 

bo'nd-part) 
Natchez (nach'ez) 
Necker (nek'ar) 

New Amsterdam (am'ster-dam) 
Newark (nu'erk) 
Newfoundland (nu'f und-land ') 
New Orleans (or'le-dnz) 
Niagara (ni-ag'd-rc) 
Nova Scotia (no'vd sko'shid) 
Nueces (nwa'ses) 
Oglethorpe (o'g'l-th6rp) 
Oklahoma (o'kld-ho'md) 
Oriskany (6-ris'kd-ni) 
Oswego (6s-we'go) 



Pakenham (pak'm-dm) 

Pawtucket (p6-tuk'et) 

Pennsylvania (pen'sil-va'ni-d) 

Pequot (pe'kwot) 

Pershing (per'shing) 

Philadelphia (fil'd-del'fi-d) 

Philippines (fil'i-pins) 

Pinckney (pingk'ni) 

Pit cairn (pit'karn) 

Pittsburgh (pits'burg) 

Pizarro (pi-zar'ro) 

Plymouth (plim'tHh) 

Pocahontas (po'kd-hon'tds) 

Ponce de Leon (pon'tha da la-on') 

Pontiac (pon'ti-ak) 

Porto Rico (por'to re'ko) 

Portugal (por'tu-gdl) 

Portuguese (por'tu-gez) 

Potomac (p6-to'mdk) 

Pottawatlomi (pot'd-w6t'd-mi) 

Prairie du Chien (pra'ri ddo shen') 

Prescott (pres'kzft) 

Pulaski (pu-las'ki) 

Quebec (kwe-bSk') 

Raleigh (ro'li) 

Revere (re-ver') 

Rhine (rin) 

Rio Grande (re'o gran'da) 

Rochambeau (ro'shan'bo') 

Rockefeller (rok'e-ferer) 

Rolfe (rolf) 

Roosevelt (ro'ze-velt) 

Rosecrans (ro'ze-kranz) 

Roxbury (roks'ber-?) 

Rutgers (rut'gerz) 

Rutledge (rut'lej) 

St. Albans (sant 61'bdnz) 

St. Augtistine (sant 6'g2is-ten') 

St. Leger (sint lej 'er) 

St. Louis (sdnt loo 'is) 

St. Mihiel (saN' me'yel') 

Salisbury (s61z'ber-i) 



560 



A PRONOUNCING INDEX 



Salzburger (zalts'boorK-er) 
Samoa (sa-mo'a) 
San Diego (san dfe-a'go) 
San Juan (san hwan') 
San Martin (san mar-ten') 
San Salvador (san sal'va-dor') 
Santa Anna (san'ta a'na) 
Santa Fe (san'td fa') 
Santiago (san'te-a'go) 
Santo Domingo (san'to 

do-ming'go) 
Sault Ste. Marie (soo' sant ma'ri) 
Savannah (sd-van'd) 
Schenectady (ske-nek'td-di) 
Schofield (sko'feld) 
Schurz (shoorts) 
Schuyler (ski'ler) 
Seattle (se-at"l) 
Sequoia (sS-kwoi'd) 
Serapis (sfe-ra'pis) 
Sevier (sfe-ver') 
Shays (shaz) 

Shenandoah (shen'dn-do'd) 
Shiloh (shi'lo) 
Sioux (soo) 
Slidell (sll-del') 
Spottsylvania (spot'sil-va'ni-d) 
Standish (stan'dish) 
Stanwix (stan'wiks) 
Steuben (stu'ben) 
Stuyvesant (sti've-sdnt) 
Suez (s6o-ez') 

Susquehanna (sus'kwfe-han'a) 
Syracuse (sir'd-kus') 
Taney (t6'ni) 
Tarkington (tar'king-twn) 
Tarleton (tarl'twn) 
Tecumseh (te-kum'se) 



Thames (temz) 

Ticonderoga (ti-kon'der-o'gd) 

Tippecanoe (tip'e-kd-noo') 

Tonty (ton'te) 

Toombs (toomz) 

Toronto (to-ron'to) 

Townshend (toun'zend) 

Trafalgar (traf'-dl-gar') 

Tuscarora (tus'kd-ro'ra) 

Tutuila (too'too-e'la) 

Utah (u'to) 

Utica (u'ti-kd) 

Utrecht (u'trekt) 

Vallandigham (vd-lan'di-gcm) 

Van Buren (van bu'ren) 

Van Rensselaer (van ren'se-ler) 

Vandalia (van-da'li-d) 

Venezuela (ven'S-zwe'ld) 

Venice (ven'is) 

Vera Cruz (va'ra kroos') 

Vergennes (ver'zhen') 

Verrazano (ver'rat-sa'no) 

Versailles (ver-salz') 

Villa (vg'ya) 

Vincennes (vin-senz') 

Walpole (wol'pol) 

Wesley (wes'li) 

Weyler (wa'ler) 

Whittier (hwit'i-er) 

Wilkes (wilks) 

Wilmot (wil'mot) 

Windsor (win'zer) 

Winthrop (win'thrMp) 

Wyoming (wl-o'ming) 

Yadkin (yad'kin) 

Yancey (yan'si) 

Yeardley (yerd'H) 

Yosemite (yo-sem'i-tS) 



THE INDEX 



{The references are to pages in the text of the book and to 
the notes in the Appendix.) 

A. American. E. English. P. French. U. Union. C. Confederate. 

A. B. C. INTERVENTION, 385 
Abolition: societies formed, 262, 263- 

264; opinions concerning, 262-263 
Abraham, Heights of, 107 
Academies, rise of, 241-242 
Acadia (Nova Scotia), 100, 104 
Act of Toleration, 32-33 
Act of 1873, 352 
Acts of Congress. See Congress, 

United States, and names of special 

acts. 
Acts of Parliament. See Parliament 

and names of special acts. 
Adams, Abigail, patriotism of, 149- 

1.50 
Adams, John: portrait of, 183; in 

Congress, 117; and independence, 

126; makes treaty of peace, 147; 

vice-president, 177; president, 183- 

184; defeated by Jefferson, 185; 

death of, note 132 
Adams, John Quincy: portrait, 224; 

secretary of state, 222, president, 

224-225; in Congress, 263; career 

of, note 130 
Adams, Samuel: portrait, 114; writes 

"circular letter," 114; opposes tea 

tax, 115, 116; in Congress, 117; 

arrest, 117, 119; opposes Constitu- 
tion, note 96 
Africa, early voyages around, 6 
Agricultural Colleges: founded, 427; 

work of, 441 
Agriculture: in Europe, 1-2; in colo- 
nies, 35, 85-89; improvement in, 

249-250. 440-446, note 253; taught 

in schools, 427, 429; Department of, 

446. note 256 
Aguinaldo, Emilio, Philippine leader, 

378 
Airplanes: invention of, 457-458; in 

World War, 471 
Alabama: history of, 218-219; se- 
cedes, 287 
"Alabama," Confederate cruiser, 319, 

340 
Alabama Claims, 340 



Alamo, battle of the, 264 

Alaska: purchase of, 339; gold in, 
353-354; seal fisheries dispute, 379- 
380; boundary dispute, 381; min- 
erals in, note 185 

Alaska-Yukon-Pacific Exposition, 355 

Albany: named, 56; colonial confer- 
ence at, 102 

Albany Female Academy, 243 

Albany Plan of Union, 102 

Algonquins, aided by Champlain, 97 

Alien and Sedition Laws, 184-185, 
note 115 

Allen, Ethan {A.), captures Ticon- 
deroga, 123 

Allies: joined by America, 468-469; 
loans to, 473-474; last drive of, 
476-478; at peace conference, 480- 
481 

Alsace-Lorraine: seized by Germany, 
466; restored to France, 480 

Amendments. See Constitution. 

America, North: visited by North- 
men, 4; discovered by Cabot, 9; 
exploration of , 10, 11-12, 13; settle- 
ment of, 12, 13, 15, 23-64, 97, 99; 
physical features of, 17-18; struggle 
for, 100-108 

America, South: discovered by Co- 
lumbus, 8; named, 10; explored, 10, 
11; Spanish in, 10-13; revolutions 
in, 221-222; and Monroe Doctrine, 
222-223, 381-382, 384-386; friend- 
ship with, 386-387; trade with, 
437-439 

American Federation of Labor, 394 

American Flag. See Flags. 

American party, 281 

American Revolution. See Revolu- 
tion. 

"American System," 209 

American Tobacco Company, 403 

Americanization, 392-393, 429-430 

Amherst, General Jeffrey (£.), 107 

Amiens, saved, 474 

Amnesty: proclamation of, 333; Act 
of. 338 



561 



562 



THE INDEX 



Amusements: in colonies, 75-76; in 

1840, 235-237 
Anarchists, in Chicago, 396 
Anderson, Major Robert (Z7.). at 

Fort Sumter, 292-293 
Andre, Major John (£.). capture of, 

138 
Andros, Sir Edmund: portrait, 48; 

tyranny of, 47; colonial governor, 

56, 59 
Annapolis (Port Royal), 100 
Annapolis, Md.: settlement of, 97, 

note 20; convention at, 158 
Annexation: of Texas, 265; of Hawaii, 

377 

Anthony, Susan B., amendment, 487 

Antietam, battle of, 303 

Anti-Slavery Movement: beginning 
of, 171; revival of, 262-264. See 
also Abolition, Slavery, Emanci- 
pation Proclamation, Garrison, 
William Lloyd, etc. 

Anti-Slavery party, 263-264 

Appomattox, Lee's surrender at, 321 

Arbitration: between nations, 340, 
353-354. 379-384; industrial, 396- 
397 

Area of the United States: increased 
by Louisiana Purchase, 190; in- 
creased by purchase of Alaska, 339 

Argonne Forest, battle in, 478 

Arizona, history of, 419-420 

Arkansas: history of, 237; secedes. 294 

Armada, Spanish, defeat of, 12, 15-16 

Armistead, General Lewis A. (C), at 
Gettysburg, 309 

Armistice, terms of, 478-479 

Army, United States: beginning of, 
122-123; dissatisfaction in, 153- 
154; increased, 184; reduced by 
Jefferson, 188; in Mexican War, 
268-269; recruited in Civil War, 
293; losses in Civil War, 323-324; 
in War with Spain, 370; in China, 
378; on Mexican border, 412-413; 
demand for increase in, 462; pre- 
pared for World War, 471-472; in 
France, 475-478; losses in World 
War, 479 

Arnold, Benedict: at Quebec, 123; at 
Saratoga, 132, note 77; treason of, 
138 

Arthur, Chester A.: portrait, 344; 
president, 345 

Articles of C&nfe deration, 153-155 

Assemblies, Colonial. See Coldnial 
Assemblies. 

Assistants, governor's, 44 

Assumption, Fort, 99 

Assumption Bill, note 180 

Astor, John Jacob, fur trader, igjj. 192 



Atlanta, campaign for, 317 

Atlantic Cable, 254 

"Atlantic Monthly," 246 

Australian ballot, 405 

Austria: begins World War, 460; 

attacked by Germany, 466; makes 

peace, 478 
Aztecs, in Mexico, li 



BACON'S REBELLION, 30 

Balbao, Vasco Nunez, discovers Paci- 
fic Ocean, 10 

Ballot: Australian, 405; short, 405 

Baltimore, Md. : founded, ^3; popula- 
tion of, 168 

Bank, United States: established, 179; 
rechartered, 206; Republican opin- 
ion of, note 124; killed, 229, note 133 

Banks: pet, 229;. national, 328; postal 
savings, 364; Federal Reserve, 411- 
412; Federal Fann Loan, 446 

Banks, General Nathaniel P. (t/.), 
captures Port Hudson, 310 

Baptists: in colonies, 30, 54, 82; or- 
ganization of, 170 

Barnard, Henry, educational work of, 
242, note 137 

Barry, John, in Revolution, 136 

Bartram, John, botanist, 80, note 44 

Bay Colony. See Massachusetts. 

Beauregard, Pierre G. T. (C) : por- 
trait, 296; at Bull Run, 296 

Belgium, invasion of, 460 

Bell, John, presidential candidate, 286 

Belleau Wood, Americans at, 476 

Bemis Heights, fortified, 132 

Bennington, battle of, 132 

Benton, Thomas H.: friend of Jack- 
son, 226; defends Oregon, 266-267 

Bering Sea Fishery Dispute, 379-381 

Berkeley, Lord John, given New 
Jersey, 58 

Berkeley, Sir William, governor of 
Virginia, 29 

Berlin-Bagdad Railroad, 468 

•'Bill of Rights": English, 95, note 19; 
American, 167, note 102 

Biloxi, Miss., settlement of, 99 

Bimetallism, 356, note 188 

Birney, James G., presidential can- 
didate, 263-264, note 145 

Blackboard, pirate, 94 

Blaine, James G.: presidential candi- 
date, 345; and South America, 386, 
438 

Blair, Francis P., in Missouri, 299 

Bland-Allison Act, 353 

Blockade: in Napoleonic Wars, 196; 
in Civil War, 296, 298-299, 318; 
in World War, 461, 463-464, 478 



THE INDEX 



563 



"Body of Liberties," 44 
Bolivar, Simon: portrait, 221; Span- 
ish-American leader, 222 

Bonds? government, 328, 329, 473 

"Bon Homme Richard," victory ot. 
136-137, note 81 

Bonnet, pirate, 94 

Boone, Daniel, in Kentucky, 138 
Boonesboro, Ky., settled, 138 

Booth, John Wilkes, assassinates 
Lincoln, 322 

Border States, in the War for the 
Union, 294, 326 

Boston, Mass.: settlement of, 43. 49; 
affected by Revolution of 1688, 47; 
prominence of, 66, oppression of, 
114, 116-117; siege of, 121, 123; 
population of. 168 

Boston Massacre. 115 

"Boston News-Letter," 80 

Boston Port Bill, 116 

Boston Tea Party, 115 

Bowery, of New York, 56, note 36 

Boxer Rebellion, 378 

Boycott, 397 

Braddock, General Edward (£.), 
defeat of, 103 

Bradford, Governor William, of Ply- 
mouth, 40 

Bragg, General Braxton (C): in the 
West, 300-301; at Chattanooga, 311 

Brandywine, battle of the, 131^ 

Breckinridge, John C, presidential 
candidate, 285-286 

Breed's Hill. See Bunker Hill. 

Brewster, William, of Massachusetts 
Bay, 40 

Brooklyn Heights, battle of, 128 

Brown, Alice, 432 

Brown, John, raid of, 285 

Brown University, founded, 79 

Bryan, William Jennings: portrait, 
356; presidential candidate, 356, 
357. 363, note 187; negotiates 
"wait-a-bit" treaties, 384 

Bryant, William Cullen, poet, 244-245 

Buchanan, James: portrait, 280; 
president, 280-281; attitude toward 
secession, 288-289 

Buell, General Don Carlos {U.), at 
Perryville, 300-301 

Buffalo, N. Y., exposition at, 355 

Bulgaria, in World War, 460, 478 

Bull Run: first battle ot, 296; second 
battle of, 302 

Bunker Hill, battle of, 121-122 

Burgesses, House of : Virginian found- 
ed, 28; Patrick Henry's speech in, 
112; appoints Committee of Cor- 
respondence, 115; established in 
Maryland, 32 



Burgoyne, General John (£.), cam- 

jiaign of, 131-132 

Burke, Edmund: opposes George III, 
III; opposes Stamp Act, 114; up- 
holds colonists, 119; defends treaty 
of peace, note 89 

Burnside, General Ambrose E, (U.), 
at Fredericksburg, 303 

Burr, Aaron: political boss, 185-186; 
fights duel, note 118 

Business, Big, 365 

Business Panics. See Panics. 

Butler, Benjamin F., presidential 
candidate, 345 

Byrd, William, library of, 81 



CABINET, PRESIDENT'S: organi- 
zation of, 164, note loi; first, 
178-179; departments of, note 107 

Cable, Atlantic, 254 

Cable, George W,, author, 432 

Cabot, John and Sebastian, explora- 
tions of, 9 

Cahokia, captvire of, 139 

Calhoun, John C: wants war with 
England, 197-198; favors tariff, 
206; opposes tariff, 259, note 144; 
in Great Debate, 273; career of, 
note 150 

California: visited by Drake, 14; his- 
tory of, 239; captured by Ameri- 
cans, 269; ceded to United States, 
270; gold in, 270-271; admission of, 
271-274; restricts Japanese, 391 

Calvert, Cecil (Lord Baltimore) : por- 
trait, 32; founds Maryland, 31 

Calvert, George: portrait, 31; granted 
Maryland, 31 

Cambridge, Mass., settlement of. 43 

Camden, Lord, opposes Stamp Act, 

114 
Camden, S. C, battle of, 143 
Canada: first settlement in, 97; in 
French and Indian Wars, 100, 105- 
108; ceded to England, 108; in 
Revolution, 123; refuge for Tories, 
127; relations with Vermont, 193; 
in War of 1812, 200, 202-203; 
peace with, 205; boundary disputes 
with, 219, 381; history of, note 123 
Canals; early, 211-212; building of, 
212-213. See also Erie Canal, 
Panama Canal, and Internal Im- 
provements. 
Cape Fear River, settlement on, 33 
Capital of the United States: first, 

177; on Potomac, notes 108, 117 
Carnegie, Andrew: and Pan-American 
Union, 387; founds libraries, 433- 
434; career of, note 246 



5^4 



THE INDEX 



Carolina: settlement of, 33-36; gov- 
ernment of, 35-36; constitution of, 
note 22. See also North Carolina 
and South Carolina. 

Carpenter's Hall, 117 

Carpetbaggers: rule of, 335-336; fall 
of. 343 

Carranza: Mexican president, 385; 
conciliates United States, 413 

Carroll, Charles, of Carrollton, 214 

Carteret, Sir George, given New 
Jersey, 58 

Cartier, Jacques, explorations of, 13 

Cartwright, Peter, circuit rider, 247 

Cass, Lewis, presidential candidate, 
270 

Catholics, found Maryland, 31 

Caucus, political, 404 

Cavahers, emigrate to Virginia, 29 

Cedar Creek, battle of, 316 

Cemetery Ridge, 308 

Census: of 1790, 194; of 1880, 440; 
of manufactures, 454 

Centennial Exposition, 354 

Cervera, Pascual, Spanish admiral, 

371 
Champlain, Samuel, plants colony, 97 
Chancellorsville, battle of, 307 
Charles I: portrait of, 45; beheaded, 

29, 45; misrule of, 42, note 19 
Charles II: restoration of, 29; misrule 

of, 47, note 19 
Charleston, S. C.: settlement of, 34; 

early position of, 35; government 

of, 36; size of, 66, 168; immigration 

to, 67; capture of, 320 
Charter: of London Company, 23, 28; 

of Massachusetts, 43, 47, 48, 116; 

of Connecticut, 50; of Rhode Island, 

51; of Pennsylvania, 61 
Charter of Liberties, 56 
Chase, Salmon P.: portrait, 328; 

Republican leader, 262, 280; plans 

bank, 328 
Chateau-Thierry, battle at, 475 
Chatham, Earl of. See Pitt, William. 
Chattanooga, battle of, 311 
Cherry Valley, massacre of, 137 
"Chesapeake," attacked, 195 
Chicago: Marquette on site of, 98 

.^jopulation of, 234; exposition at 

355; foreign population of, 390, 429 

-strikes in, 396; manufactures in 

454; meat-packing industry of, 455 

steel industry, 456 
Chickamauga, battle of, 311 
Child Labor, 398-399, note 220 
Children's Bureau, 398 
China, trouble in, 377-378, note 210 
Chinese, immigration of, 390 
Chippewa, battle of, 203 



Christian Commission, 324 

Christina. See Wilmington, Del. 

Church of Latter Day Saints. See 
Mormons. 

Churchill, Winston, author, 433 

"Cibola, Cities of," 12 

Cincinnati, Ohio, population of, 234 

"Circular Letter," of Adams, 114 

Circumnavigation of Earth, 11, 14 

Cities: in colonies, 66; in 1790, 168; 
in Confederacy, 295; affected by 
immigration, 389-390; government 
of, 407-409, note 226 

Citizens' Industrial Association, 395 

City Manager Plan, 408-409 

Civil Rights' Bill, 334 

Civil Service Reform, 344-345, note 
179 

Civil War. See War for the Union. 

Claiborne, William, attacks Mary- 
land, 33 

Clark, George Rogers, expedition of, 
139-140 

Clark, William, explores Oregon, 191 

Clark's Grant, 156 

Clay, Henry: portrait of, 228; advo- 
cates war with England, 197-198; 
favors internal improvements, 209; 
makes Missouri Compromise, 221; 
favors Spanish-America, 222, notes 
129, 215; presidential candidates 
224, 228, 264; makes Compromise of 
1850, 272;in Great Debate, 272-273; 
death of, 274; on tariff, note 144 

Clayton Act, 397-398 

Clemens, Samuel L., " Mark Twain," 
432, note 240 

"Clermont," invention of, 209 

Cleveland, Grover: portrait, 345; 
president, 345-346; candidate for 
reelection, 347; second term, 349- 
350; on currency question, 353; 
advocates neutrality, 368; opposes 
Hawaiian annexation, 377; in Ven- 
ezuelan dispute, 381 

Cleveland, Ohio, foreign population 
of, 390 

Clinton, DeWitt: presidential candi- 
date, 199; builds Erie Canal, 212 

Clinton, George: a Republican, no; 
opposes Constitution, note 96 

Clipper Ship, 257 

Coal: in Pennsylvania, 215; increase 
in use of, 253; in South, 453; gov- 
ernment control of, 473 

Coal Strike, 482-483 

Coinage. See Currency. 

Cold Harbor, battle of, 315 

"Collective Bargaining," 394 

Colleges: in colonies, 78-80; increase 
of, 243. See also names of colleges. 



THE INDEX 



565 



Colombia, loses Panama, 375 

Colonial Assemblies: establishment 
of, 27-28. 31. 44. 54, 56. 57. 58. 59; 
description of, 95 

Colonies, American: planting of. 23- 
64; royal, 28-30. 36. 56, 59; pro- 
prietary. 31-33, 61; charter. 43. 48. 
50, SI, 95; life in, 65-95; govern- 
ment of. 94-96; union of, 118; 
separate from England, 125-128; 
fight for independence, 125-146 

Colorado: history of, 331-332; ad- 
mission of. 414; adopts woman 
suffrage, 486 

Columbia, S. C, burning of, 320 

Columbia River, discovery of. 191 

Columbia University: founded, 79; 
size of, note 237 

Columbian Exposition, 354-355. note 
186 

Columbus, Christopher: portrait, 7; 
early life, 6; ideas of. 7, notes 5. 6; 
appeals to Portugal. 7; aided b\' 
Spain, 7; first voyage. 7; later voy- 
ages, 8-9; death of, 9; arrest of, 
note 7; honor to, note 8 

Commerce: colonial. 35. 88-90, 92-94, 
no-iii, note 59; under Confed- 
eration, 154; aids reform in gov-ern- 
ment, 157-158; regulation of. 159. 
346; of West, 175-176, 210; re- 
stricted by England. 182, 195-197; 
war for freedom of, 199-206; in- 
crease in, 257; of South, 258. 295. 
296-297, 298-299; foreign. 435-439. 
notes 247-251. 259. 260; with 
Allies. 461: of Germany, 467-468 

Commerce Commission, Interstate, 
346 

Commission Plan, for city govern- 
ment, 408 

Committees of Correspondence, 115 

"Common Sense," pamphlet, 126 

Commons, House of, 119 

Community Center, movements for, 
430 

Compact, Mayflower. See May- 
flower Compact. 

Compromise: in the Constitution, 
158-160; Missouri, 221; tariff, 261; 
of 1850, 272-274; Crittenden, 289 

Concord, battle of, 119-120 

Confederacy: formation of, 288; 
prepares for war, 290, 291, 294; 
strength of, 294-295; blockade of, 
296—299; foreign relations of, 297; 
foreign commissioners for, 297; 
dissatisfaction in, 311; Lincoln's 
terms to, 316; navy of, 318-319; 
conditions in, 318, 325, 326-327; 
end of, 320-322 



Confederation, Articles of, 153-155 
Confederation, New England, 45, 49 
Congregational Church, 43, 81, 170 
Congress, Continental: first, 11 7-1 18, 
note 63; second appoints Washing- 
ton commander, 122; organizes 
army, 123; petitions king, 125; 
declares independence, 126-127; at 
Baltimore. 129; lacks funds, 130; 
receives Washington's resignation, 
148; in Confederation, 153-154 
Congress, Stamp Act, 113 
Congress, United States: powers of, 
163-164; plans reconstruction, 334; 
declares war on Spain, 369; buys 
Canal Zone. 375; appoints Vene- 
zuelan commission, 381; declares 
war on Gennany, 469; passes war 
measures, 470-471, 472-473; adopts 
amendments, 484, 487 
Connecticut: settlement of. 45, 48-49; 
government of. 50; founds Yale, 79; 
keeps Western Reserve, 156; offers 
constitutional compromise, 159 
Conservation, of natural resources, 

360-363 
Constantinople, captured by Turks. 5 
Constitution, first written one, 49 
Constitution, United States: amend- 
ments to. 46. 166-167, 306, 334, 
335, 411, 484, 488; making of, 158- 
160; ratification of, 160-161; ex- 
planation of. 163-167; provisions 
of. 538-539; text of. 540-543 
"Constitution" ("Old Ironsides"): 
defeats "Guerriere," 201-202; other 
victories. 202; saved. 245 
Constitutional Convention, 158-160 
Continental Congress. See Congress, 

Continental. 
"Continentals": recruited, 123; at 

Camden, 142 
"Continentalist," 155 
Contraband, 304 

Contract Labor, immigration of, 388 
Conventions: Albany, 102; Annapolis, 
158; Constitutional, 158-160; Hart- 
ford, 204-205; national, 228, 404; 
nominating. 228. 404 
Conway Cabal, 132. note 78 
Cooke, Jay, and Company, 342 
Coolidge, Calvin, vice-president, 488 
Cooper, James Fenimore: portrait, 

244; writings of, 244 
Cooper, Peter, invents engine, 214 
Corinth, Miss., captured. 300 
Corn, introduced into England. 15 
Cornwallis, Lord Charles (£.) : at 
Princeton. 129-130, note 75; at 
Camden. 142-143; in Carolinas, 
144; at Yorktown, 144-146 



566 



THE INDEX 



Coronado, Francisco, expedition of, 

12 

Cortez, Hernando, conquers Mexico, 
II 

Cotton: and cotton gin, 173-174; 
affects slavery, 262 ; export during 
Civil War, 295, 298-299; influences 
Confederate foreign relations, 296- 
297; export of, 435, note 247; man- 
ufacture of, 453, 457 

Cotton gin: invention of, 173; affects 
slavery, 262 

Courts, national, 165-166, 179, 186, 
281 

Cowpens, battle of, 143 

Craddock, Charles Egbert, author, 
432 

Crawford, William H., presidential 
candidate, 224 

Crittenden Compromise, failure of, 
289 

Cromwell, Oliver: colonial policy of, 
29. 33; defeats Charles I, 45, note 
19 

Crusades, 5 

Cuba: discovery of, 8; revolt in, 367- 
368; freedom of, 371, 372; trade 
with, note 200 

Cumberland Gap, route to West, 17, 
138 

Cumberland Road, description of, 
2 10-2 1 1 

Currency: continental, 153-154; pa- 
per, 229, 328, 329, 348-349. note 
180; silver, 352-354, 356; controlled 
by Federal Reserve, 412; colonial, 
note 57; in Confederation, note 93 
« "Current Events," 434 

Custer, General George Armstrong, 
battles with Indians, 422-423, note 
232 

Customs. See Duties and Tariff. 



DA GAMA, VASCO, reaches India, 
6 

Daguerreotypes, 252 

Dakota, history of, 415, note 229. 
See also South Dakota. 

Dale, Sir Thomas, governor of Vir- 
ginia, 26, 27 

Dalton, Ga., battle of, 317 

Danish West Indies, purchase of, 413 

Darrah, Lydia, warns Washington, 
150 

Dartmouth College, founded, 79 

Davenport, John, Puritan leader, 49 

Davis, Jefferson: portrait, 288; in 
Great Debate, 273-274; Confeder- 
ate president, 288; criticism of, 311; 
arrest of, 322 



Davis, Richard Harding, author, 433, 
note 244 

Dawes Act, 424 

Dearborn, Fort, 218 

Debs, Eugene, Socialist candidate, 
363, 410, 488 

Debts: of French and Indian War, 
108, iii; national, 153, 179-180, 
188, 329, 347, 473, note 108; Con- 
federate, 334; state, 336-337 

Declaration of Independence: adop- 
tion of, 126-128; text, 534-537 

"Declaration of Rights," 118 

Deerfield, Mass., Indian massacre at, 
100 

De Grasse, Count (F.), naval com- 
mander, 145 

De Kalb, Baron (F.) : joins Americans, 
130; agent of France, 133; at Cam- 
den, 142—143; monument to, note 

Delaware: settlement of, 57; ratines 

Constitution, 161; attitude toward 

secession, 294 
Delaware, Lord, in Virginia, 26 
De Leon, Ponce, Spanish explorer, 

10 
De Lesseps, Ferdinand, builds Suez 

Canal, 374 
Democratic party: origin of, 228; atti- 
tude toward slavery, 270, 285; 

splits on silver question, 355-356 
Democratic-Republican party: origin 

of, i8r; members of, no, 224; in 

control, 187; split in, 228 
Denmark: sells Virgin Islands, 413; 

attacked by Germany, 466 
Depth bombs, 471, 476 
De Soto, Hernando: explorations of, 

11-12, note ID; death of, 12 
Detroit, Mich.: surrender of, 200; 

founded, 237 
"Deutschland," German submarine, 

462 
Dewey, Admiral George, at Manila, 

369-370 
Dias, Bartholomeu, rounds Africa, 6 
Diaz, Porfirio, rule in Mexico, 385, 

note 213 
Dickinson, John: writes "Letters of a 

Farmer," 114; in Congress, 117; 

helps make Constitution, 158 
Dingley Tariff Law, 356 
District of Columbia : emancipation in, 

304; prohibition in, 484 
"Divine Right of Kings," 466, note 3 
Division of Labor, 451-452 
Dix, Dorothea, social reformer, 247- 

248 
Donelson, Fort, captured, 299 ' 
Dorchester, Mass., settlement of, 43 



THE INDEX 



567 



Dorchester Heights, fortified, 123 

Dorr's Rebellion, 233 

Douglas, Stephen A.: portrait of, 277; 
career of, 277; introduces Kansas- 
Nebraska Bill, 278, note 153; de- 
bates with Lincoln, 283-284, note 
154; elected senator, 285; presiden- 
tial candidate, 285-286; supports 
Lincoln in Civil War, 291, 293. 
note 157 

Dow, Neal, presidential candidate. 

344 
Draft: in Civil War, 312-313, 325; in 

World War, 471 
Draft Riots, 312-313 
Drake, Sir Francis: portrait, 14; 

attacks Spaniards. 14 
Dred Scott Decision, 281 
Duke's Laws, 56 

Duquesne, Fort (Pittsburgh), 103, 105 
Dutch: relations with Indians. 21; 

in New York. 66; fur trade of, 90 
Dutch West India Company, 53 
Duties, colonial, 114. See also Tarifi . 



EARLY, GENERAL JUBAL A. (C). 
raids Shenandoah Valley, 316 

Earth: Columbus' idea of, 7; circum- 
navigation of, II, 14 

Eaton, Theophilus, Puritan leader, 49 

Edison, Thomas, invents electric 
light, 457 

Education: in Europe, 2; colonial, 76- 
81. note 43; in Northwest Terri- 
tory. 157; in 1790, 169; changes in, 
241-244, 424-431, notes 233-239; 
of women. 243, note 138; of slaves. 
261; in Cuba, 372; in Philippines, 
379, note 211; of immigrants. 392- 
393; vocational. 428. 449 

Edwards, Jonathan, colonial preacher. 
83 

Eggleston, Edward, author, 432, note 
242 

Eighteenth Amendment, 484 

El Caney, battle of, 370 

Elections, Presidential: of 1789, 177; 
of 1796, 183-184; of 1800, 185; of 
1808, 197; of 1820, 223; of 1824, 
224-225; of 1828, 225-226; of 1836, 
230; of 1840, 230; of 1844, 264-265. 
note 145; of 1848, 270; of 1852, 274; 
of 1856, 280-281; of i860, 285-286; 
of 1864, 314; of 1872, 341; of 1876, 
342-343; of 1880, 343-344; of 1884. 
345; of i888, 347; of 1892, 349; of 
1896, 355-356; of 1900, 356; of 1904, 
359; of 1908, 363; of 1912, 365-366; 
of 1916, 463; of 1920, 488 

Electoral Commission, 343 



Electors, Presidential, 164, note 116 
Electric Lights, invention of, 457 
Elevators, for grain, 444 
Elizabeth, Queen, names ^'irginia, 

14-1S 
Elizabethtown, settled, 58 
Emancipation Proclamation, 304-307 
Embargo Act, 196 
Emerson, Ralph Waldo, 245 
Emigrant Aid Society, 278 
Endicott, John, founds Salem, 43 
England: explorations of, 9; Spain's 
rival, 14, notes 14, 16; defeats 
Armada, 15-16; mistreats Indians. 
21; war with Holland, 55, note 34; 
colonial trade with, 93; wars with 
France, 100-109; colonial loyalty to, 
121; treaty with, 182-183; claims 
Oregon, 265-267; attitude toward 
Confederacy, 297; arbitration with, 
340, 379-380, 381, 382; relations to 
Panama, 374-375; enters World 
War, 460; bottles usfc German navy, 
461; searches American mail, 462 
English Church (Episcopalian): in 
America, 30. 81. 170; reform in. 38 
Era of Good Feeling, 224. note 132 
Erdntan Arbitration Act, 397, note 219 
Ericcson, John, builds " Monitor," 298 
Ericson, Leif, discovers America, 4 
Erie, Lake, battle of, 200 
Erie Canal: building of, 212; effects 

of, 212-213, note 127 
"Essex," in Pacific. 202 
Europe: appearance of, i; life in, 1-4 
Eutaw Springs, battle of, 144 
"Evangeline," note 52 
Excess Profits Tax, 473 
Excise, first. 1 80 

Expansion of United States, 190. 221, 
265. 267, 270, 339, 371-372. 375. 
377. 413 
Explorations: early, 9-14, 98-99; of 

West, 190-192 
Exports: colonial, 27, 35, 89. 91-92; 
agricultural, 435; of manufactures, 
435; customers for, 437; to South 
America. 438. See also Commerce. 
Expositions, 354-355 
Express Companies, 256 



FABIUS, 130 

Factories, 173. 236 

Factory Laws, 398-400. notes 220-223 

Fairfax, Lord, 65. note 71 

Farmers' Alliance, 349 

Farming. See Agriculture. 

Farragut, Admiral David G.: portrait, 
318; on "Essex," 202; at New 
Orleans, 300; at Mobile Bay, 318 



568 

I 

"Father of the Constitution," note 95 

Federal Farm Loan Banks, establish- 
ment of, 446 

Federal Hall, 178 

Federal Reserve Act, 411-412 

"Federalist," 161, note 98 

Federalist party: origin of, 180; 
decline of, 184-185; opposes Napo- 
leon, 199; death of, 223-224; mem- 
bers, note 109 

Ferguson, Major Patrick (£.), at 
King's Mountain, 143 

Feudalism, fails in America, 32, 34, 
S3. 62 

Field, Cyrus W., lays cable, 254 

Field, Eugene, poet, 432 

Fifteenth Amendment, 334-335 

"Fifty-four forty or fight," 267 

Fillmore, Millard: portrait, 272; pres- 
ident, note 149 

Financial Panics. See Panics. 

Fishing: in New England, 90; in 
Newfoundland, 97 

Fitch, John, inventor, note 126 

Five Forks, battle of, 320 

Five Nations, note 15 

Flags, 146, 177, 194, 201, 202, 204. 
439, note 76 / 

Fleet: Spanish, 15, 135, 369, 371; 
English, loi; French, 135, 145; 
American. 136, 359-360, 369, 371. 
See also Navy. 

Florida: exploration of, 10, 11-12; 
settlements in, 12, 14; becomes 

' English, 108; bought by United 
States, 221; history of, 237; seces- 
sion of, 287 

"Florida," Confederate cruiser, 319 

Foch, General Ferdinand: Allied 
commander, 474; agrees to Armis- 
tice terms, 479 

Food Control, 473 

Foote, Commodore Andrew {U.), on 
Mississippi, 300 

Forbes, General (£.), 105 

Force Bills: of 1833, 261 ; of 1866, 338 

Foreign Relations: under Federalists, 
181-183, 184; during Napoleonic 
Wars. 195-206; with Latin-America,- 
221-223; during War for Union, 
296-297; after Civil War, 339-341; 
under Roosevelt, 358-360; develop- 
ments in, 367-387; under Wilson, 
412-413, 460-481 

Foreign Trade. See Commerce. 

Forest Reserves, 361-362, note 194 

Forestry Service, 361-362 

"Forty-Niners," 271 

Fourteenth Amendment, 334 

Fox, Charles, opposes George III, 
III. 146 



THE INDEX 



France: and. Columbus, 7; explora- 
tions by, 13; relations with Indians, 
21; in America, 97-109; wars with 
England, 100-109; in Revolution, 
132-137, 145-146, note 87; loans 
by. 153. 179; revolution in, 172, 
181; Ainerican relations to, 184; 
sells Louisiana, 189-190; attitude 
toward Confederacy, 297; invades 
Mexico, 339; in World War, 460, 
466 

Franklin, Benjamin: portrait, 133; 
education, 80; and Albany Plan, 
102; in England, 118-119, note 64; 
loyalty of, 121; on committee for 
independence, 126; in France, 133; 
peace cominissioner, 147; favors 
union, 152-153; in Constitutional 
Convention, 158, 159, 160, note 95 

Franklin, battle of, 320 

Frederica, Ga., settled, 37 

Frederick the Great, 104, 105 

Fredericksburg, battle of, 303-304 

Free Silver. See Silver, Bimetallism. 

Free-Soil party, 270 

Freedmen's Bureau Bill, 334 

Freedom of speech, 81 

Freeman, Mary E. Wilkins, author,' 
432 

Freeman's Farm, battles of, 132 

Fremont, John C. : explorations of, 
267; wins California, 269; presiden- 
tial candidate, 280 

French, pirate, 94 

French and Indian War, 101-109 

Frontier, disappearance of, 420-421 

Fuel Control, 473 

Fugitive Slave Law, 275 

Fulton, Robert, invents steamboat, 
209. note 126 

Fur Trade: among Indians, 21; in col- 
onies, 90; in Northwest, 191-192 



GADSDEN, CHRISTOPHER: urges 
union, 113; in Continental Con- 
gress, n8 

Gadsden Purchase, 270, 419 

"Gag" resolutions, 263 

Gage, General Thomas (E.) : in Bos- 
ton, 117; sends troops to Concord, 
118; sends Howe to Bunker Hill, 
121; leaves Boston, 123 

Gallatin, Albert, secretary of treasury, 
188, note no 

Galveston, Tex., adopts commission 
plan, 408 

Garfield, Harry A., controls coal sup- 
ply- 473 

Garfield, James A.: portrait, 344; 
president, 344 



THE INDEX 



569 



Garland, Hamlin, author, 433, note 

243 

Garrison, William Lloyd, abolitionist, 
262, 27s 

Gas, note 193 

"Gaspee," burned, 115 

Gates, Horatio (A.): at Saratoga, 132; 
in South, 142, 143 

"Geneva Tribunal," 340 

Genoa: loses trade, 5-6; birthplace of 
Columbus, 6 

George III: portrait, 11 1; ideas of, 
hi; denounced by Patrick Henry, 
112; orders "circular letter" re- 
called, 114; appoints Lord North 
premier, 115; refuses conciliation, 
125; stubbornness of, 135, 146; 
hires Hessians, note 69 

Georgia: settlement of, 36-37; Ger- 
mans in, 67; British fighting in, 
140-141; secedes, 287; Sherman's 
march through, 317-318, 319, 320 

Germans: in colonies, 34, 63, 66; 
immigration of, 235 

Germantown, battle of, 131 

Germany: aids Austria, 460; subma- 
rine policy of, 462, 463-464; United 
States breaks with, 464; sends 
plotters to America, 464; prepares 
for war, 464-468; America declares 
war on, 468; revolution in, 478; 
armistice terrns to, 478-479 

Gerry, Elbridge, opposes Constitution, 
note 96 

Gettysburg, battle of, 308-309, note 
163 

Ghent, treaty of, 204, 205 

Giddings, Senator, abolitionist, 262 

Gilbert, Sir Humphrey, attempts 
settlements, 14 

•Gold, discovery of, 12-13, 270, 353- 

354 

Gold Standard Law, 357 

Golden Hill, battle of, 115 

Gomez, Cuban leader, 367-368 

Gompers, Samuel, 398 

Good Templars, 249 

Gorges, Sir Ferdinando, granted 
Maine, 48 

Government, United States. See 
Confederation, Articles of. Consti- 
tution, United States, Congress, 
President, etc. 

Government Lands. See Public 
Lands. 

Grand Canyon, discovery of, 12 

"Grand Model," note 22 

Granger Movement, 349 

Grant, Ulysses S. (U.): portrait, 315; 
in Kentucky, 299; at Shiloh, 300; 
at luka, 301; at Vicksburg, 309- 



310; at Chattanooga, 311; Union 
commander, 315; makes terms to 
Lee, 321; protects Confederates, 
322; president, 341; third term. 
343^344; wants Civil Service Re- 
form, 344-345; career of, note 166 

Grants, Royal: of Virginia, 23; of 
Maryland. 31; of the Carolinas, 33; 
of New York, 56; of New Jersey, 
58; of Pennsylvania, 61 

Gray, Captain, discovers Columbia 
River, 191 

Great Britain. See England. 

"Great Migration," 43 

Greeley, Horace: opposes Lincoln, 
313, note 175; Davis' bondsman, 
322; presidential candidate, 341 

Greenback party, 343, 344, 348-349 

Greenbacks, 329, 348-349. See also 
Currency. 

Greene, Nathanael (A.): in South, 
143-144; reward of, note 86 

Greenville, treaty of, 194 

Grenville, George, prime minister, 11 1 

Guam, acquisition of, 372 

"Guerriere," defeated, 201-202 

Guiana, British, boundary dispute, 
3S1-382 

Guilford, settlenient of, 49 

Guilford Courthouse, battle of, 144 

Gustavus Adolphus, 57, note 37 



HAGUE CONFERENCES, 382-383 

Hague Tribunal, 382 

Haiti: discovery of, 8; finances of, 384 

Hale, Nathan, execution of, note 73 

"Half Moon," 52 

Hamilton, Alexander: portrait, 155; 
wants strong government, 155, 
158; at Constitutional Convention, 
158, note 95; supports Constitution, 
161; secretary of treasury, 178; 
Federalist, 180; defends Jay's 
treaty, 183; death of, note 118 

Hamilton, Andrew, Quaker lawyer, 81 

Hamilton, General (£.), loses to 
Clark, 140 

Hampton Roads: " Monitor" at, 297- 
298; fleet at, 359-360 

Hampton Roads Conference, 316 

Hancock, John: threatened arrest, 
117, 1 19; president of Congress, 122; 
business of, note 46; opposes Con- 
stitution, note 96 

Hancock, General 'Winfield Scott 
([/.): at Gettysburg, 308; presiden- 
tial candidate, 344 

Harding, Warren G.: portrait, 488; 
president, 488-489, note 273 

Harlem Heights, battle of, 128 



576 



THE INtDEX 



Harnden, William F., 256 
Harper's Ferry, raid on, 285 
"Harper's Magazine," 246 
Harrison, Benjamin: portrait, 347; 

president, 347; wants Hawaii, 377; 

opens Oklahoma, 418 
Harrison, William Henry: portrait, 

232; at Tippecanoe, 200; at battle 

of Thames, 200; president, 230-232 
Harrodsburg, founded, 138 
Harte, Bret, author, 432 
Hartford, settlement of, 49 
Hartford Convention, 204 
Harvard College, founded, 78 
Hat Act, III 
Havana, "Maine" destroyed at, 368- 

369 
Haverhill, Mass., Indian massacre 

at, 100 
Hawaii: acquisition of, 376-377; lep- 
er's colony in, note 192; discovery 

of, note 209 
Hawthorne, Nathaniel, author, 244 
Hay, John, a friend to China, 378 
Hay-Pauncefote Treaty, 375 
Hayes, Rutherford B.: portrait, 343; 

president, 343; wants Civil Service 

Reform, 344"345 
Haymarket Riot, 396 
Hayne, Paul Hamilton, author, 432 
Hayne, Robert, debate with Webster, 

259 
Hebrew Welfare Association, 470 
Hennepin, Father, explorations of, 99 
Henrietta Maria, Maryland named 

for, 31 
Henry, O., 433, note 245 
Henry, Patrick: opposes Stamp Act, 

112; in Congress, 117; aids Clark, 

139; opposes Constitution, note 96 
Henry, Prince, of Portugal, 6 
Henry, Fort, captured, 299 
Herkimer, General Nicholas (A.), 

defeats British, 132 
Hessians: hired by George III, 125, 

note 69; at Trenton, 129-130 
High Schools: rise of, 242; growth of, 

426; vocational, 429 
"Higher Law," speech by Seward, 274 
Hobkirk's Hill, battle of, 144 
Hobson, Richmond P., at Santiago, 

371 

Holland: refuge of Pilgrims, 40; 
progress of, 52; settles New Amster- 
dam, 52; war with England, 55, 
note 34; American debt to, 153, 
179 

Holmes, Oliver Wendell, 245 

Holy Alliance, 222 

"Holy Experiment," 61 

Homestead Act, 415 



Hood, General John B. (C) : replaces 
Johnston, 317; in Georgia, 318; in 
Tennessee, 319-320 

Hooker, General Joseph (U.): ap- 
pointment of, 304; at Chancellors- 
ville, 307; removal of, 308 

Hooker, Thomas: settles Connecticut, 
45, 48; democracy of, 49 

Hoover, Herbert C, controls food 
supply, 473 

"House-Divided-Against-Itself," Lin- 
coln's speech, 283 

House of Burgesses. See Burgesses, 
House of. 

House of Commons. See Commons, 
House of. 

House of Representatives. See Rep- 
resentatives, House of. 

Houston, Sam, aids Texas, 264 

Howe, Elias, invents sewing machine, 
252, note 141 

Howe, General George (£.), in 
French and Indian War, note 54 

Howe, General William (£.): at 
Boston, 121, note 73; leaves Boston, 
123; campaign in North, 128-129 

Howells, Wilham Dean, author, 433 

Hudson, Henry, voyage of, 52 

Hudson River, discovery of, 52 

Huerta, Mexican leader, 385 

Hughes, Charles Evans, Republican 
candidate, 463 

Huguenots: in America, 13-14, 35, 67; 
in France, notes 13, 24 

Hull, Captain Isaac (.4.), commands 
"Constitution," 201 

Hull, General William (.4.), surren- 
ders Detroit, 200 

Hutchinson, Anne, driven from Mass- 
achusetts, 44, 50, note 28 



IDAHO: history of, 417, note 230; 
adopts woman suffrage, 486 

Illinois, history of, 218 

Immigration, 234-235, 388-393, notes 
134, 136, 216 

Impeachment, of Johnson, 335 

Imperialism, 356-357 

Imports: colonial, 73, 88, 93; coun- 
tries sending, 437; from South 
America, 438—439. See also Com- 
merce. 

Impressment of Sailors, 182, 183, 195 

Income Tax, 329, 350-351. 4ii. 473 

Indented Servants, 68-69 

Independence, The Declaration of: 
growth of idea, 109, 125-126; issu- 
ance of, 126-128; text of, 534-535 

Independence Hall, 290 

India, search for route to, 5-10 



THE INDEX 



571 



Indiana: Vincennes expedition to, 140, 
156; history of, 217; Indians in, 422 

Indian Territory, 422 

Indians: named, 8; treatment by 
Spanish, 12, 13; manner of hfe, 19- 
22; land ownership among, 20; 
organization among, 21; warrior, 
21; squaw, 22; massacre Virginians, 
30; relation to Maryland, 31; rela- 
tions to Plymouth, 41; sell Rhode 
Island, 50; war with Dutch, 54; 
Penn's treaty with, 62; French 
relations with, 97-98; in War of 
1812, 200; government policy 
toward, 421-424 

Indigo, cultivation of, 35, 88 

Industrial Revolution, 172 

Industry: colonial, 85-92; during 
Revolution, 171-172; in East, 215; 
growth of, 440; after World War, 
481-482. See also Manufacturing, 
Agriculture, and names of indus- 
tries. 

Initiative, 406 

Injunction, 397, 398 

Internal Improvements: demand for, 
208-209; beginning of, 210-214; 
opposition to, 215. See also Ca- 
nals, Roads, and Railroads. 

Interstate Commerce Commission, 

Intolerable Acts, 116-117 

Inventions, 172-173, 209, 249-254, 
457-459, notes 140, 141, 142, 261 

Iowa, history of, 238 

Irish, immigration of, 235 

Iron Industry, 91, 253, 455-45^ 

Iron Works Act, in 

Ironclads, 298 

Iroquois: Confederation of, 21, note 
15; friends with Dutch, 52; de- 
feated by Champlain, 97-98 

Irrigation, 362-363, note 195 

Irving, Washington, author, 244 

Isabella, Queen, aids Columbus, 7 

Isle of Pines, 373 

Italy, joiias Allies, 461 



JACKSON, ANDREW: portrait, 227; 
wins battle of New Orleans, 204; 
presidential candidate, 224-225; 
campaign of, 225-227; president, 
227-228; originates Spoils System, 
227; reelected, 228; destroys bank, 
229; issues Specie Circular, 230; 
opposes nullification, 261 

Jackson, Thomas Jonathan ("Stone- 
wall") (C): portrait, 307; in Shen- 
andoah, 302; death of, 307, note 
162; nickname, note 159 



Jails, condition of, 36, 1 70-1 71 
Jamaica, discovery of, 8 
James I, 28, note 19 
James II, 47, 56, 57, note 19 
James, Henry, author, 433 
Jamestown: settlement of, 24; appear- 
ance of, 27; burned, 30 
Japan: opened to foreigners, 257; 
immigration from, 390-391; joins 
Allies, 461 

Jay, John: portrait, 179; in Con- 
tinental Congress, ir8; peace com- 
missioner, 147; supports Consti- 
tution, 161; chief justice, 179; 
makes treaty with England, 182- 
183 

Jay Cooke & Company, 342 

Jefferson, Thomas: portrait, 185; 
loyalty of, 12 1; writes Declaration 
of Independence, 126, note 72; 
foreign policy of, 156, 195-197; 
secretary of state, 178; Republican, 
181; vice-president, 183-184; presi- 
dent, 185-186, 187-188; buys Louis- 
iana, 190; sends out Lewis and 
Clark, 190-191; starts University 
of Virginia, 244; begins patent sys- 
tem, 458; death of, note 132 

"Jerry," rescue of, note 152 

Jersey, East and West. See New 
Jersey. 

Jewett, Sarah Orne, author, 432 

Jews, in Georgia, 37 

Johnson, Andrew: portrait, 333; 
president, 333-338; plans recon- 
struction, 3S3; impeachment of, 
335, note 173 

Johnson, Sir William (E.), captures 
Ticonderoga, 107 

Johnston, General Albert Sidney 
(C), death of, 300, note 160 

Johnston, General Joseph E. (C): at 
Bull Run, 296; in Peninsular Cam- 
paign, 302; in West, 311; removal 
of, 317; in North Carolina, 320; sur- 
render of, 322; career of, note 168 

JoHet, Louis, French explorer, 98 

Jones, John Paul (A.): portrait, 136; 
in Revolution, 136-137 

"Journal of Education," 242 

Judges. See Courts. 

Jury, trial by 47, 61, 397, 398 



KAISER WILLIAM II: believes in 
"divine right," 466; ambitions of, 
467-468, note 264; abdication of, 
478, note 271 

Kansas: dispute over, 277-279; set- 
tlement of, 278; history of, 329; 
gives women limited suflErage, 486 



572 



THE INDEX 



Kansas-Nebraska Bill, 278 
Kaskaskia, 111., captured by Clark, 139 
Kearney, Colonel Stephen W., in 

Mexican War, 269 
"Kearsarge," 319 
Kenesaw Mountain, battle of, 317 
Kent Island, held by Claiborne, ^^ 
Kentucky: early settlement of, 138, 
193; owned by Virginia, 156; de- 
clares for nullification, 185; history 
of, 193; attitude toward secession, 
294, 299 
Kentucky Resolutions, 184-185 
Key, David M., ex-Confederate, 343 
Key, Francis Scott, writes "Star- 
Spangled Banner," 203-204 
Kidd, Captain, pirate, 94 
Kindergartens, 425, note 233 
King George's War, 100 
King Philip's War, 47 
King William's War, 100 
King's College (Columbia), 79 
King's Mountain, battle of, 143 
Klondike, discovery of gold in, 353- 

354 
Knights of Columbus, 470 
Knights of Labor, 349, 394 
Know-Nothing party, 281 
Knox, Henry, secretary of war, 178 
Kosciusco, Thaddeus: aids America, 

130; at Bemis Heights, 132 
Ku-Klux Klan, 337-338 



LABOR, DEPARTMENT OF, 397 
Labor, Division of, 451-452 
Labor, Knights of, 349, 394 
Labor party, 341 
Labor Unions: early, 248; history of, 

393-398 

Laborers, foreign, 388-391 

"Ladies' Magazine," 246 

Ladrones, visited by Magellan, 10 

Lafayette, Jean Paul: portrait, 134; 
joins Americans, 130, note 66; 
commands to, 134; visits Wash- 
ington, 148; donates services, note 
90 

LaFollette, Robert, Progressive, 365 

Lake Champlain, battle of, 97 98 

Lake Erie, battle of, 200 

Lands, Public. See Public Lands. 

Lanier, Sidney, author, 432 

La Salle, Sieur de, French explorer, 
98-99 

Laurens, Henry, peace commissioner, 

147 
Lawrence, Kan., settlement of, 278 
League of Nations: plan of, 480-481; 

in politics, 488 
Lecompton Constitution, 279 



Lee, Charles (.4.). at Momnouth, note 
80 

Lee, Henry ("Light Horse Harry") 
(.4.), in Revolution, 137 

Lee, Richard Henry : in Congress, 117; 
proposes independence, 126; pro- 
poses confederation, 153; opposes 
Constitution, 161, note 96 

Lee, Robert E. (C): portrait, 304; 
joins Confederacy, 294; appointed 
comiTiander, 302; invades Mary- 
land, 302-303; at Chancellorsville, 
307; invades Pennsylvania, 308- 
309; in Wilderness, 315; surrenders, 
321; career of, note 158 ■ 

Leiden, Pilgrim's home, 40 

Leisler, governur, 57 

"Letters of a Farmer," 114 

"Letters of a Federal Farmer," 161 

Lewis, Meriwether, portrait, 190 

Lewis and Clark Expedition, 190-191 

Lewis and Clark Exposition, 355 

Lexington, battle of, 1 19-120 

Liberal Republicans, 341 

"Liberator," abolition paper, 262, 
263 

Liberty Bell, 146 

Liberty Loans, 473 

Liberty party, 264 

Libraries: colonial, 81; growth of, 433 

Lincoln, Abraham: portrait, 282; 
career of, 282-283; candidate for 
Senate, 283; debates with Douglas, 
284-285, note 154; elected presi- 
dent, 285-286; inauguration, 290, 
note 156; and Fort Sumter, 292; 
calls for volunteers, 293; frees 
slaves, 304-307; censures Meade, 
309; character of, 313, note 165; 
reelection, 314; offers tenns of 
peace, 316; visits Richmond, 322; 
assassination, 322; plans reconstruc- 
tion, S33; favors woman suffrage, 
485; opposes Mexican War, note 
146 

Lincoln, General Benjamin (A.), fails 
in South, 140-141 

Lincoln-Douglas debates, 283-284 

Line of Demarcation, 9-10, note 12 

"Literary Digest," 434 

Literature, American, history of, 244- 
246, 432-433 

Little Big Horn, battle of, 422-423, 
note 232 

Livingston, Philip, 117 

Livingston, Robert R.: on independ- 
ence conimittee, 126; minister to 
France, 190 

Lockouts, 396 

Log-rollings, 207 

London, Jack, author, 433 



THE INDEX 



573 



London Company: grant to, 20, 23; 
sends out settlers, 24; establishes 
a representative government, 27; 
loses charter, 28 

Long Island, battle of, 128 

Longfellow, Henry W.: portrait, 245: 
works, 245. note 52 

Longstreet, General James (C), at 
Chattanooga, 311 

Lookout Mountain, battle of, 311 

Loose Construction, 180 

Louisburg, captured by English, 100- 
loi, 105 

Louisiana: claimed by French, 98-99; 
given to Spain, 108; ceded to 
France, 189; purchase of, 190; his- 
tory of, 216-217; secedes, 287; sugar 
state, note iSi 

Louisiana Purchase Exposition, 355 

Lovejoy, Elijah, 2G3 

Lowell, James Russell, author, 245 

Lundy's Lane, battle of, 203 

"Lusitania," sunk by submarine, 462, 
note 262 

Lynn, settlement of, 43 

Lyon, General Nathaniel (U.), 299 



McADOO, WILLIAM, controls rail- 
mads, 472-473 

McClellan, George Brinton (U.): por- 
trait, 302; appointed commander, 
296; slowness of, 301; in Peninsular 
Campaign, 302; removed, 303; 
nominated for presidency, 314 

McCormick, Cyrus H., invents reaper, 
249, note 140 

McDonough, Commodore Thomas 
(A.), wins on Lake Champlain, 202 

McDowell, General Irvin (U.): at 
Bull Run, 296; protects Washing- 
ton, 302 

"Macedonian," defeated, 202 

Machinery: introduced into America, 
172; on farms, 442; in factories, 452 

Mckinley, William: portrait, 357; 
president, 356; reelected, 3S7; 
assassinated, 357; seeks war with 
Spain, 369 

McKinley Tariff, 348, 438 

Madero, Mexican president, 385 

Madison, James: portrait, 199; fa- 
vors strong government, 155; at 
trade convention, 158; in Consti- 
tutional Convention, 158, note 95; 
supports Constitution, 161; writes 
Virginia resolutions, 184; president, 
197-198; and War of 1812, 199; 
distrusts New England, 204 

Magellan, Spanish explorer, 10 

Magna Charta, 94 



Maine: settlement of, 48; history of, 
219; prohibition in. 484 

"Maine," destruction of, 368-369, 
notes 201, 202 

Manassas Junction. See Bull Run. 

Manhattan Island: settlements on, 
52; purchase of, 53 

Manila Bay, battle of, 369-370, note 
203 

Mann, Horace: portrait, 242; educa- 
tional work of, 242 

Manufacturing: colonial, 91-92; de- 
velopment of, 251; large scale, 401- 
403; increase in, 447; reasons for 
growth, 447-449; aided by science. 
449; by machinery, 451-452; dis- 
tribution of, 452-454; in South, 453; 
by-products, 454-457 

Marco Polo, 5 

Marine, Merchant, history of, 439 

Marines, American, in France, 476 

Marion, Francis, in Revolution, 141- 
142, note 83 

Mark Twain, 432, note 240 

Marne, first battle of, 461 

Marquette, Jacques, explorations of, 
98 

Marshall, John: chief justice, 186; 
Federalist, note 109 

Martin, San, Spanish-American 
leader, 222 

Maryland: settlement of, 31; attitude 
toward secession, 294; invasion of, 
302; ratifies Articles of Confedera- 
tion, note 92 

Mason, George: in Constitutional 
Convention, 158; opposes slavery, 
171; opposes Constitution, note 96 

Mason, James, seizure of, 297 

Mason, Captain John, granted New 
Hampshire, 48 

"Mason and Dixon's Line," 63 

Massachusetts: settlements in, 40, 
43; persecutes Quakers, 46; gains 
new land, 48; drives out radicals, 
49, 50; schools in, 77; "circular 
letter" of, 114; starts Correspond- 
ence Committees, 115; oppression 
of, 116-117; in Revolution, 122; 
ratifies Constitution, 161; school 
laws of, 429; manufacturing in, 452 

Massachusetts Bay Company, 43, 44 

Massasoit, Indian chief, 41, 47, 50 

Mather, Cotton, colonial preacher, 8i, 
83 

Matthew, Father, 249 

Maximilian, on Mexican throne, 339 

"Mayflower," voyage of, 40 

"Mayflower Compact," 40 

Meade, General George (U.): por- 
trait, 308; at Gettysburg, 308 



574 



THE INDEX 



Meat-packing industry, 455 
Mecklenburg County, declaration of, 

125, note 70 
Memphis, surrender of, 300 
Merchant Marine. See Marine, 

Merchant. 
"Merrimac," battle with "Monitor," 

297-298 
Merritt, General, at Manila Bay, 370 
Methodists, 82, 170, 246-247, 483 
Mexico: conquest of, 11, note 9; war 

with, 267-270; invaded by France, 

339; American relations with, 385, 

412-413; German plots in, 464; 

conditions of, note 227 
Michigan: history of, 237; university 

of, 244 
Miles, General Nelson A., in Porto 

Rico, 370 
Milford, settlement of, 49 
Miller, Joaquin, author, 432 
Mining Industry: beginning of, 172; 

in California, 239; of coal and iron, 

253 
Minnesota, history of, 239 
Minuit, Peter, Dutch governor, 53 
Minutemen, at Lexington, 120, note 

65 
Missionary Ridge, battle of, 311 
Mississippi: history of, 217; secedes, 

287 
Mississippi River: discovery of, 12; 
explored, 98-99; closed to trade, 
156, 176, 189; campaign for, 299- 
301, 309-310 
Mississippi Valley, routes to, 17 
Missouri: history of, 219-220; atti- 
tude toward secession, 294, 299 
Missouri Compromise: passed, 221; 

repealed, 278, note 153 
Mobile, settlement of, 99 
Mobile Bay, capture of, 318 
Mohammedans, 5 
Money. See Currency. 
"Monitor," ironclad, 297-298 
Monmouth, battle of, 136, note 80 
Monroe, James: portrait, 223; com- 
missioner to bviy Louisiana, 190; 
issues Doctrine, 222-223; president, 
223-224; election of, note 131 
Monroe Doctrine: issued, 222-223; 
saves Mexico, 339; new interpre- 
tations, 381, 384-386 
Montana, history of, 415-416 
Montcalm, Louis Joseph de (F.) : 
portrait, 105; defends Quebec, 107; 
monument to, note 55 
Montgomery, General Richard (A.), 

death of, 123 
Montreal: named, 13; surrenders, 108 
Moravians, in colonies, 37, 82 



Morgan, General Daniel (A.): cap- 
tured, 123; at Saratoga, 132; at 
Cowpens, 143; in Revolution, note 
68 

Morgan, John, Confederate raider, 326 

Mormons: history of, 240-241; prac- 
tice irrigation, 417 

Morrill Act, 427 

Morris, Gouverneur: portrait, 160; 
and the Constitution, 158, 160 

Morris, Robert, Revolutionary finan- 
cier, 130, note 74 

Morse, Samuel F. B., invents tele- 
graph, 253-254, note 142 

Mott, Lucretia, 262 

Moultrie, General William (.4.), 
defends Charleston, 140 

Mount Vernon, 148 

"Mugwumps," 345 

Murfreesboro, battle of, 301 

Murray, Mrs., in Revolution, 150 



NAPOLEON BONAPARTE: closes 
Mississippi, 189; sells Louisiana, 
190; rise of, 195; blockades Europe, 
196; career of, note iii 

Nashville, battle of, 320 

National Association of Manufac- 
turers, 395 

National Banks. See Banks. 

National Convention. See Conven- 
tions. 

National Manufacturers' Association, 

395- 

National Republican party, origin of, 
228. See also Whig party. 

National Road, 2 10-2 11 

Natural Resources: conservation of, 
360-363; waste of, note 193 

Naturalization, 391-392, note 217 

Navigation Laws, 55, no, in, note 34 

Navy, Confederate, 318-319 

Navy, United States: in Revolution, 
136-137; increased, 184; reduced by 
Jefferson, 188; in 1812, 199-202; in 
Civil War, 295 ; sends out fleet, 359- 
360; increase demanded, 462; in 
World War, 470 

Nebraska: territory formed, 278; his- 
tory of, 331 ; woman suffrage in, 487. 
See also Kansas-Nebraska Bill. 

Negroes: as soldiers, 307; control the 
South, 336-338 

Neutrality: Washington's proclama- 
tion of, 1 81-182; of France and 
England in Civil War, 297; Wilson's 
proclamation of, 461 

Nevada : history of, 330-33 1 ; woman 
suffrage in, 487 

New Albion, 14 



THE INDEX 



575 



New Amsterdam: under Stuyvesant, 
54; surrender of, 55; schools of, 

77 
New England: colonies, 38-51; popu- 
lation of, 66; amusements in, 75; 
churches of, 81, 83; farming in, 87; 
fishing of, 90; rum trade of, 93-94; 
town meeting of, 96; in French and 
Indian wars, lOI 
New England Confederation, 45, 49 
New France: rise of, 97-99; end of, 

100, 108 
New Hampshire: settlement of, 48; 

organized, 152 
"New Hampshire Gazette," 245-246 
New Haven: settled, 49; joined to 
Connecticut, 50 

New Jersey: settled, 58; education in, 
77; churches in, 81-82 

"New Jersey Plan," 159 

New Mexico: ceded to United States, 
270; history of, 418-420, note 231 

New Netherland : settled, 53 ; taken by 
English, 55; schools of, 77 

New Orleans: settled, 99; trade of, 
176, 210; importance of, 189; battle 
of, 204; population of, 216-217; 
Jackson's visit to, 226-227; cap- 
tured by Farragut, 300 

"New Roof" (Constitution), 161 

New Sweden, founded, 57 

New York: population, 66; rent day 
in, 71-72; education in, 77; churches 
in, 81-82; manufactures in, 452; 
grants woman suffrage, 487 

New York City: named, 55; population 
of, 66, 168, 234; free speech in, 81; 
travel from, 93; and Erie Canal, 
213; draft riots in, 312; foreigners 
in, 390; manufactures of, 454 

"New York Sun," 246 

"New York Tribune," 246 

Newark, settled, 58 

Newcastle, settled, 61 

Newfoundland: fisheries of, 97, 382; 
ceded to England, 100 

Newlands Act, 397, note 219 

Newport, settled, 50 

Newspapers: colonial, 80, 81; in- 
crease in, 245-246, 433 

Newtown. See Cambridge. 

Nicholson, Meredith, author, 433 

Nominating Conventions, origin of, 
228 

Nominations, methods of, 404-405 

Non-Importation Agreements, 112- 
113, 118, 195 

Non-Intercourse Act, 197 

North: population of, 234; strength 
of, 294-295; relief work in, 324; 
effect of war on, 327-329 



North, Lord Frederick: portrait, 115; 
prime minister, 115; plans concilia- 
tion, 1 19; tries to resign, 135 

North America. See America, North. 

"North American Review," 246 

North Carolina: settled, 15, 32', seces- 
sion of, 294. See also Carolina. 

Northern Pacific Railroad, develops 
West, 415 

Northmen, discoveries of, 4 

Northwest: conquest of, 139; settle- 
ment of, 216 

Northwest Territory, 156-157 

Nova Scotia: captured by English 
100; depopulated, 104 

Nueces River, as boundary, 268 

Nullification: by Kentucky, 185; up- 
held, 259; by South Carolina, 261 
of Fugitive Slave Law, 275 

OGLETHORPE, JAMES EDWARD 

portrait, 36; founds Georgia, 36 

Ohio: part of Northwest Territory 
157; settlement of, 174; history of 
194-195; canals in, 213 

Ohio Company, loi 

Oil, as by-product, 455 

Oklahoma: history of, 417-418; Indi- 
ans of, 424 

"Old Dominion" (Virginia), 238 

"Old Ironsides," 245 

"Old Rough and Ready," 268 

Old South Meeting-house, 116 

"Olive Branch" Petition, 125 

Omnibus Bill, 272 

"Open-door policy," 378 

Orange, Fort (Albany), 56 

Ordinance: of 1787, 157; of nullifica- 
tion, 261; of secession, 287 

Oregon: explored, 190-191; our claim 
to, 191-192; history of, 240; dispute 
over, 265-267, note 145; adopts 
recall, 406; adopts woman suffrage, 
487 

"Oregon," battleship, 374 

Oregon Trail, 18-19, 266 

Oriskany, battle of, 132 

Otis, James, note 56 

"Outlook," 434 

PACIFIC OCEAN, discovery of, 10 

Packing Industry, 455 

Page, Thomas Nelson, 432 

Paine, Thomas, quoted, 125, 126 

Pakenham, General (£.), at New 
Orleans, 204 

Panama: crossed by Balboa, 10; rail- 
road across, 373, note 206 

Panama Canal: need for, 373-374; 
building of, 374-376; effect of, 438, 
note 208 



576 



THE INDEX 



Panama-Pacific Exposition, 355 

Pan-American Congress, 386-387, 438 

Pan-American Exposition, 355 

Pan-American Union, 387 

Panics, financial: of 1837, 229; of 
1873, 341-342; of 1893, 350; recur- 
rence of, note 176 

Paper Money. See Currency and 
Greenbacks. 

Parcel Post, 364 

Paris, Treaty of, 147 

Parker, Alton B., presidential candi- 
date, 359 

Parliament: quarrels with Charles I, 
28-29, 42; aids Oglethorpe, 36; 
Long, 45; grants Rhode Island 
charter, 51; forbids colonial manu- 
factures, 91-92; repays debt to 
colonies, loi; oppresses colonies, 
1 1 2- 1 14; colonial appeal to, 118 

Parties, Political. See names of. 

Patents, 458 

Paterson, William, in Constitutional 
Convention, 158 

Patroons: rights of, 53; receive rent, 
71-72; lose quitrents, 233 

Paulus Hook, captured, 13 

Payne-Aldrich Bill, 363 

Peace, movement for, 382 

Peace Conference, at Versailles, 480 

Pemberton, General (C). at Vicks- 
burg, 310 

Pendleton Bill, 345 

Peninsular Campaign, 301-302- 

Penn, William: portrait, 61; advises 
Duke of York, 56; obtains Delaware, 
57-58; turns Quaker, 60, note 38; 
arrives in America, 61-62; treaty 
with Indians, 62 

Penn Charter School, 77 

Pennsylvania : founded, 6 1 ; troubles in, 
63; population of, 66-67; education 
in, 77-78; religious sects in, 82; abol- 
ishes slavery, 171; canals in, 213; 
uses coal, 215; manufactures, 452 

Pennsylvania, University of, founded, 
79. 80 

"Pennsylvania Packet," 80 

Pensions, 348 

People's party, organized, 349 

Pequot Indians, 47 

Perry, Matthew C., opens up Japan, 
257 

Perry, Oliver H. (A.), wins battle of 
Lake Erie, 200 

Perryville, battle of, 301 

Pershing, General John J.: portrait, 
412; in Mexico, 412-413; American 
commander in France, 472; career 
of, note 267 

Personal Liberty Laws, 275 



Peru, conquest of, 1 1 

Petersburg, siege of, 315 

Petition, right of, 167, 263 

"Petition of Right," 42, 94-95, note 26 

Petroleum, refinement of, 455 

Philadelphia: founded, 62-63; Con- 
tinental Congress in, 117; campaign 
for, 129; evacuated by British, 135; 
rejoices over Yorktown, 145, 146; 
Congress flees from, 154; celebrates 
ratification, 162; population of , 168, 
234; exposition at, 354; manufac- 
tures in, 454 

Philip, King, 47 

Philippines: visited by Magellan, 11; 
question in politics, 356-357; con- 
quest of, 369-370; cession of, 372; 
government of, 378-379; education 
in, note 211 

Phillips, Wendell, abolitionist, 262 

Phonograph, invention of, 459 

Pickens, Andrew (.4.), in Revolution, 
141 

"Picketing," 396 

Pickett, George E. (C), at Gettys- 
burg, 308-309 

Pierce, Franklin: portrait, 275; presi- 
dent, 274 

Pike, Zebulon: portrait, 192; explora- 
tions of, 192 

Pilgrims: wanderings of, 40; relations 
to Indians, 41; democracy of, 42 

Pinckney, Charles C, in Constitu- 
tional Convention, 158 

Piracy, in colonies, 94 

Pitcairn, Major John (£.), at Lexing- 
ton, 120 

Pitcher, Mollie, at Monmouth, 150 

Pitt, William: portrait, 104; English 
statesman, 105; opposes George 
III, III; opposes Stamp Act, 114; 
confers with Frankhn, 118-119; 
attempts conciliation, 119 

Pitt, Fort. See Duquesne, Fort. 

Pittsburg Landing. See Shiloh. 

Pittsburgh: center of coal and iron 
trade, 253, 455-456; manufacturing 
in, 454 

Pizarro, conqueror of Peru, 11 

Piatt Amendment, 372-373 

Plymouth: settled by Pilgrims, 40-41; 
population of, 41-42 

Plymouth Company, 23, 38 

Pocahontas, note 17 

Poe, Edgar Allen, poet, 245 

Poets, American. See Literature and 
names of poets. 

Polk, James K. : portrait, 265; nomi- 
nation announced, 254; president, 
264-265; settles Oregon question, 
267; and Mexican War, 268 



THE INDEX 



577 



Polo, Marco, eastern traveler, 5 
Ponce de Leon, Spanish explorer, 10 
Pontiac's Conspiracy, 237 
"Poor Richard's Almanac," 133 
Pope, General John {U.), at Bull Run, 

302 
Popular Sovereignty, 278, 284-285 
Population of the United States: in 

colonies, 66; in 1790, 168; in 1800, 

216; in 1S40, 234 
Populist party, origin of, 349 
Port Bill, Boston, 116 
Port Hudson, surrender of, 310 
Port Royal. See Annapolis, Acadia. 
Port Royal, S. C, destroyed, 14 
Porter, David (C/.)- on "Essex," 202 
Porter, Gene Stratton, author, 433 
Portland, exposition at, 355 
Porto Rico: discovery of, 8; conquest 

of, 370; cession of, 372 
Portsmouth, N. H., founded, 48 
Portsmouth, R. I., settled, 50 
Portugal, early explorations of, 6, 9 
Postal Savings Bank, 363-364 
Postal Service, 256 
Potatoes, introduced into England, 15 
Pottawattomies, removal of, 422 
Presbyterians, 81, 170 
Prescott, William (-4.), at Bunker 

Hill, 121 
President of the United States: 

powers of, 164-165; succession of, 

346; term of, note 100; election of, 

notes 106, 116 
Presidential Preference Primaries, 

405 

Press: first in colonies, 80; rotary, 252. 
See also Newspapers. 

Pretender, 35, note 23 

Price, General Sterling (C), at luka, 
301 

Primary elections, 404 

Princeton, battle of, 130 

Princeton University, founded, 79 

Printing. See Press and News- 
papers. 

Privateers: in Revolution, 136; in 
War of 1812, 202; of Confederates, 
298, 319 

Proclamations: of neutrality, 1 81-182; 
of emancipation, 304-305; of am- 
nesty, 333 

Production, direct and indirect, 450- 
452 

Profiteering, 482, 483 

Progressive party, 365-366 

Prohibition: beginning of, 249; amend- 
ment passed, 484 

Prohibition party, 341, 344, 345, 463, 
48 8 

Providence, R. I., founded, 50 



Public Lands: origin of, 156; specula- 
tion in, 229; sale of, 415; used for 
education, 427 

Pulaski, Count Casimir: joins Ameri- 
cans, 130; death of, note 82 

Punishment, changes in, 247 

Puritans: rise of, 28-29, 38; emigrate 
to Virginia, 29; in Maryland, :i2,\ 
persecution of, 42; in Massachu- 
setts, 43; revolt, 45; settle Boston, 
49; in New England, 81 

Putnam, General Israel {A.), at 
Bunker Hill, 121 

QUAKERS: in colonies, 30, 34, 46, 
54, 82; given Delaware, 57-58; buy 
Wes,t Jersey, 59; rise of, 59-60; 
teachings of, 60; settle Pennsyl- 
vania, 61-62; oppose slavery, 68, 
171 

Quebec: settlement of, 97; captured 
by English, 108; territory of, 117; 
attacked by Americans, 123 

Quebec Act, 117 

Queen Anne's War, 100 

Queenstown Heights, expedition 
against, 203 

Quitrents, 233 

RAILROADS: beginning of, 213-214; 

growth of, 254-255; regulation of, 

346; encourage immigration, 388; 

combine, 402; under government 

control, 472-473 
Raleigh, Sir Walter: portrait, 15; 

plants colonies, 14-15 
Ranching Industry, 415 
Randolph, Edmund: in Constitutional 

Convention, 158; attorney-general, 

178 
Randolph, John: opposes war with 

England, 197; career of, note I20» 
Recall, 406-407 
Reciprocity, 438 

Reclamation Movement, 363-364 
Reconstruction Period, 333-338 
Red Cross Society, 470 
"Redemptioners," 69 
Referendum, 406 
Reformation, Protestant, 13, 38 
Regulating Act, 116, note 62 
Religion: ie colonies, 30, 32, 37, 40, 

46, 48, 50, 52, 56, 58, 82, 81-83; 

changes in, 170; in West, 236, 246- 

247; effect of World War on, 483- 

484 
Rent Day in New York, 71-72 
Representative Government: in col- 
onies, 27, Z2, 42, 44, 49, 51, 56, 57, 

58, 59; under Confederation, 153- 
155; under Constitution, 163 



578 



THE INDEX 



Representatives, House of: composi- 
tion of, 163, note 99; elects John 
Adams, 185-186; passes Wilmot 
Proviso, 270 

Republican party: origin of, 280; cor- 
ruption of, 342; and tariff, 348-350; 
split in, 365-366, notes 197, 198 

Reservation system, 423 

Resources. Natural, conserved, 360- 
363 

Resumption of specie payment, 349 

Revere, Paul: Revolutionary courier, 
115; goes to New York, 116; ride of, 
120 

Review, Grand, of Union troops, 323 

"Review of Reviews," 434 

Revolution, American, 110-151; 
causes of, 110-119; beginning of, 
119-123; a struggle for independ- 
ence, 125-128; in the Middle 
states, 128-132; French in, 132-137; 
irregular warfare in, 137-138; in 
West, 138-140; in South, 140-146; 
ended. 147 

Revolution of 1688, 47 

Rhode Island: settled, 44, 50; not in 
New England Confederation, 45; 
religions in, 82; not represented in 
Constitutional Convention, 158; 
ratifies Constitution, 161 

Rice, cultivated in Carolina, 35, 88 

Richmond, Lord, favors colonies, 146 

Richmond, Va. : Confederate capital, 
294; McClcllan's campaign for, 301- 
302; Grant's campaign for, 315, 
320-321; fall of, 320-321 

Riley, James Whitcomb, author, 432, 
note 241 

Rio Grande River, as boundary, 268 

Roads, 442-443. See also Cumber- 
land Road and National Road. 

Robertson, James, in Tennessee, 139 

Robinson, John, Puritan leader, 40 

Rochambeau, Count, aids Americans, 
146, note 87 

"Rock of Chickamauga," 311 

Rockefeller, John D., 401 

Rockingham, Lord, repeals Stamp 
Act, 114 

Rolfe, John, begins tobacco culture, 27 

Roosevelt, Theodore: portrait, 358; 
president, 357-360; opposes "big 
interests," 365; leads Progressives, 
365-366; in Spanish-American War, 
370; buys canal zone, 375, note 207; 
and Venezuela, 384; aids Santo 
Domingo, 384; settles coal strike, 
397; unites Republican party, 463; 
career of, note 189; obtains Nobel 
Prize, note 191; and World War, 
note 263 



Rosalie, Fort, built, 99 

Rosecrans, General William ([/.): 
succeeds Buell, 301; at Chatta- 
nooga, 311 

"Rough Riders," 370 

Roxbury, settlement of, 43 

Rubber, manufacture of, 252 

Rush-Bagot Treaty, 205 

Russell, Irwin, author, 432 

Russia: sells Ala.ska, 339; enters 
World War, 460; collapse of, 474 

Russo-Japanese War, 358-359, note 
190 

Rutgers College, founded, 79 

Rutledge, John: in First Continental 
Congress, 118; in Constitutional 
Convention, 158 



ST. ANTHONY FALLS, discovered, 
99 

St. Augustine: settled, 12; destroys 
Port Royal, 14 

St. Clair, General Arthur, defeated by 
Indians, 194 

St. John, John P., presidential candi- 
date, 345 

St. Lawrence River: discovery of, 13; 
gained by English, 105 

St. Leger, Colonel Barry (£.), at Fort 
Stanwix, 131, 132 

St. Louis, Mo.: starting point for Lewis 
and Clark, 191; trade of, 210; pop- 
ulation of, 234; e.xposition at, 355 

St. Mary's, Md., settlement of, 31 

St. Mihiel, American victory at, 477 

"Salary Grab," 342 

Salem, Mass.: settlement of, 43; 
witchcraft craze in, 84 

Salisbury, Lord, in Venezuelan dis- 
pute, 381-382 

Salmon Falls, attacked by Indians, 100 

Salvation Army, 470 

Salzburgers, in colonies, 37 

Samoa, United States' claims to, 377 

San Francisco, exposition at, 355 

Sanitary Commission, 324 

San Juan, battle of, 370 

San Salvador, discovery of, 8 

Santa Anna, capture of, 26^ 

Santa Fe, settlement of, 12, note 231 

Santa Fe Trail, 18-19 

Santiago, battle of, 370, 371, note 205 

Santo Domingo, United States pro- 
tectorate, 384 

Saratoga, battles at, 132 

Savannah, Ga.: settlement of, 36-37; 
captured by British, 140; taken by 
Sherman, 319 

"Savannah," steamship, 256 

Scalawags, 336 



THE INDEX 



579 



Schenectady, N. Y.: attacked by Indi- 
ans, 100; affected by Erie Canal, 212 

Schofield, General John (17.), 320 

Schools. See Education. 

Schurz, Carl, Gennan, note 135 

Schuyler, General (A.), in New York, 
132 

Scotch-Highlanders, in colonies, 34, 

37 

Scotch-Irish, in colonies, 34, 66, 67 

Scott, Dred, 281 

Scott, General Winfield: in Mexican 
War, 268-269; presidential candi- 
date, 274 

Scrooby, Pilgrim's home, 40 

Seal Fisheries Dispute, 379-381 

Search, Right of, 182, 183, 195-196 

Seattle, exposition at, 355 

Secession: threats of, 261, 262, 286- 
287; of South, 287-288 

Sedition, and Alien laws, 184-185, 
note 115 

Seminary Ridge, 308 

Senate, United States, 163, 407, note 

97 
Separatists, rise of, 38 
"Serapis," battle with, 136-137 
Serbia, attacked by Austria, 460 
Settlement: of colonies, 23-63; of 
West, 174-175, 188-189, 207, 216- 
220, 237-239, 330-332. 414-421; of 
Oregon, 266; of California, 271; of 
Kansas, 278 
"Seven Days' battle," 302 
Seven Years' War, 104 
Seventeenth Amendment, 407 
"Seventh of March," speech by 

Webster, 273 
Sevier, John, in Tennessee, 139 
Seward, William H.: in Great Debate, 
274; Republican leader, 2S0, buys 
Alaska, 339; warns French in Mex- 
ico, 339; makes "irrepressible con- 
flict" speech, note 155 
Sewing Machine, invention of, 252 
Shadrach, rescued slave, note 152 
Shays, Daniel, rebellion of, 154 
"Shenandoah," in Pacific, 319 
Shenandoah Valley: Jackson in, 302; 

Early's raid in, 316 
Sheridan, General Philip (Z7.): at 
Vicksburg, 310; in Shenandoah, 
316; ordered to Mexico, 339 
Sherman, Roger: in Continental Con- 
gress, 117; on committee for inde- 
pendence, 126; in Constitutional 
Convention, 158 
Sherman, General William T. (U.). 
at Chattanooga, 311; captures At- 
lanta, 317-318; campaign through 
Georgia, 319-320; in Carolina, 320; 



receives Johnston's surrender, 322; 
career of, note 167 

Sherman Anti-Trust Act, 402 

Sherman Silver Purchase Act, 353 

Shiloh (Pittsburg Landing), battle 
of, 300 

Shipbuilding: in colonies, 85, 91; in 
i860, 295; in World War, note 268 

Silver: coinage of, 352-353; question 
of, in politics, 355-357, note 182 

Sioux Indians, 238 

Six Nations. See Five Nations 

Sixteenth Amendment, 411 

Slade, Senator, abolitionist, 262 

Slater, Samuel, brings machines to 
America, 173 

Slaughter, royal governor, 57 

Slavery: introduced into Virginia, 27; 
in colonies, 93-94, note 47; forbid- 
den in Northwest Territory, 157; 
opinions on, 171; effect of gin on, 
174; question in Senate, 220; quar- 
rel over, 258-291 ; in California, 271 ; 
in territories, 278; in Civil War, 304. 
See also Emancipation, Abolition, 
etc. 

Slidell, John, Confederate commis- 
sioner, 297 

Smith, John: saves Jamestown, 25; 
returns to England, 26; explores 
New England, 38; and Pocahontas, 
note 17 

Smith, Joseph, Mormon leader, 240 

Smith, Kirby, surrender of, 322 

Smith-Hughes Bill, 429 

Smuggling: in colonies, 94; under 
Embargo, 196 

Social Classes: European, 1-4; in 
colonies, 32, 34, 53, 68-70, 72; 
among Quakers, 6o-; in 1790, 169 

Socialism, 409-410 

Socialist party, 410, 463, 489 

•'Society for the Promotion of Arts, 
Agriculture, and Economy," 172 

"Sons of Liberty," 112 

South: homes in, 75; population of, 
234; differs from North, 258: 
opposes Abolitionists, 262-263; 
sends settlers to Kansas, 278; 
secession of, 287; conditions of, in 
1865, 326; reconstruction of, 333- 
338; education in. 424-425; litera- 
ture of, 432; manufacturing in, 453. 
See also Confederacy. 

South America. See America, South. 

South Carolina: settlement of. 34-36; 
Calhoun's letter to, 259; nullifies 
tariff, 261; secedes, 287. See also 
Carolina. 

South Dakota, adopts referendum, 
406. See also Dakota. 



58o 



THE INDEX 



"Southern Literary Messenger," 246 
Spain: explorations by, 10-13; decay 
of, 12-13; settlements by, 12; 
methods of conquest, 13, 21 ; rivalry 
with England, 14, 15-16, 34, 37, 
notes 14, 16; war with Holland, 40; 
joins in Revolution, 135; closes 
Mississippi, 156, 176; trouble with 
colonies, 221-222; war with, 367- 
371, note 205; treaty with, 371 
Spanish-American War, 367-371 
"Specie Circular," 230 
Specie Payments, resumed, 349 
Spoils System: origin of, 227; aboli- 
tion of, 344-345 
Spottsylvania, battle of, 315 
Squatter sovereignty. See Popular 

sovereignty. 
Stagecoaches, 177 
Stanford, settlement of, 49 
Stamp Act, 112, note 57 
Standard Oil Company, 401, 403 
Standish, Myles, Pilgrim, 40, note 

25 

Stanton, Edwin M., removal of, 335 

Stanwix, Fort, 131 

Stark, General John {A.): at Bunker 
Hill, 121; at Bennington, 132 

"Stars and Bars," 308 

"Star-Spangled Banner," written. 
203-204 

Starving Time, 26 

State Sovereignty, 181. See also 
States' Rights. 

States: origin of governments of, 95; 
formation of, 152; supremacy of, 
153; ratify Constitution, 161; new 
ones admitted, 192-195, 216-220, 
237-240, 329-332. 415-420 

States' Rights, 205, 261, 287-288 

Steam, use of, 209, 215, 251, 256 

Steamboats: invention of, 209, note 
126; improvement in, 256 

Steel, 455-456 

Stephens, Alexander H.: portrait, 
289; opposes secession, 287; Con- 
federate vice-president, 288; at 
Hampton Roads Conference, 316 

Steuben, Baron, trains American 
soldiers, 131, 137, 142-143 

Stockton, Frank R., author, 433 

Stony Point, captured, 137 

Stowe, Harriet Beecher, writes 
"Uncle Tom's Cabin," 275 

Strict Construction, of the Constitu- 
tion, 181, 190, 228 

Strikes: right of, 395-396; after 
World War, 482-483; in 1916, 
note 218 

Stuart. General J. E. B. (C), cavalry 
officer, 302 



Stuyvesant, Peter: governor of New 
Netherland, 54; surrenders to Eng- 
lish, 55; captures Delaware, 57 

Submarines: sink "Lusitania," 462; 
increased activity of, 464 

Suez Canal, 374 

Suffrage: in colonies, 49, 58, 59; in 
1780, 152; in West, 224; negro, 338. 
See also Woman Suffrage. 

Sugar Act, iii 

Sullivan, General John (A.), defeats 
Tories, 37 

Sumner, Charles, an abolitionist, 262 

Sumter, Thomas (A.), in Revolution, 
141 

"Sumter," Confederate privateer, 
319 

Sumter, Fort: supplies for, 289; sur- 
render of, 292-293 

Supreme Court. See Courts. 

Surplus, revenue in treasury. 347-348 

Swiss, in colonies, 34, 37 



TAFT, WILLIAM H.: portrait, 363; 
president, 363; splits party, 365. 
note 196 

Taney, Roger, chief justice, 281 

Tanks, in World War, 471 

Tariff: under Confederation. 154; 
Hamilton's, 179; of 1816, 206, note 
143; opposition to, 215-216, 258- 
259; nulUfication of, 261; com- 
promise, 261; "war," 328-329; 
legislation, 347-348. 350, 363,' 411, 
438, note 196; in politics, 355-357 

Tarkington, Booth, author, 433 

Tarleton, Colonel Banastre (£.), at 
Cowpens, 143, note 85 

Taxation: in colonies, 47, 112-115; 
under Confederation, 153; by states, 
154; under Constitution, 159, 163; 
by Hamilton, 180; in Civil War, 
327, 328-329; of incomes, 349, 350, 
351. 411; in World War, 473 

Taylor, General Richard (C), sur- 
render of, 322 

Taylor, Zachary: portrait, 267; in 
Mexican War, 268; president, 270, 
note 149; favors free-state Cali- 
fornia, 271 

Tea: tax on, 114, 115; thrown over- 
board, 116 

Tecumseh : portrait, 22 ; Indian states- 
man, 22, note 122; death of, 200 

Telegraph: invention of, 253-254, 
note 142; Atlantic, 254; wireless, 
458-459 

Telephone, invention of, 458. 459 

Temperance Movement, 249. See 
also Prohibition. 



THE INDEX 



581 



Tennessee: settlement of, 139; his- 
tory of, 194; secession of, 294; 
fighting in, 300-301; aboUshes 
slavery, 306 

Tenure of Office Act, 335 

Territories, of the United States: 
beginnings of, 156-157; slavery in, 
270, 278, 280. 281, 284, 285; in 
1880, 414 

Texas: history of, 237-238; independ- 
ence of, 264; annexation of, 265, 
note 145; secedes, 287 

Thames, battle of. 200 

Thanksgiving Day, first, 41 

Thayer, Eli, anti-slavery leader, 278 

Thomas, General George (£/.): at 
Murfreesboro, 301, note 169; at 
Chattanooga, 311; defeats Hood, 
320 

Thrift Stamps, 474 

Ticonderoga, Fort: attacked by Howe, 
105', taken from French, 107; cap- 
tured by Allen, 123; taken by Brit- 
ish, 132 

Tilden, Samuel J., election dispute 
over, 343, note 178 

Tippecanoe: battle of, 200; in cam- 
paign of 1840, 232 

Tobacco: introduced into England. 
15; cultivated in colonies, 26-27, 32» 

35 
Toleration, Act of, 32-33 
Tories: in colonies, 119, 123, 127, 143, 

note 71; in England, iii, 146 

Toronto, burned. 203 

Town Government, 43 

Town Meetings, New England, 42, 96 

Townshend Acts, 114 

Training Camps, in World War, 472 

Transportation: in colonies, 92-93; In 
1790, 177; improvement in, 208- 
213, 256, 254-256; in Far West, 
266; aids agriculture, 442-444 

Trade. See Commerce. 

Travel. See Transportation. 

Treasury, United States, 229, 347 

Treaties: Penn's with Indians, 82: of 
Utrecht, 100; of 1763, 108; of 1783, 
147; Jay's, 182; of Greenville, 194; 
of Ghent, 205; of joint occupation, 
265; of Portsmoiith, 359; with 
Spain, 371-372; Hay-Pauncefote, 
375; "wait-a-bit," 384; with Santo 
Domingo, 384; with Indians, 422; 
of Versailles, 480-481 

"Trent Affair," 297 

Trenton, battle of, 129-130 

Trumbull, Faith, patriotism of, 150 

Trusts, 401-403 

Turkey: joins Germany, 460; quits 
fighting, 478 



Turks: close trade routes, 5; capture 

Holy Land, 5, note 4 
Tutuila, acquisition of. 377 
"Twain, Mark," 432, note 240 
Tweed Ring, 342, note 177 
Tyler, John, president. 232-233, 265 
Typewriter, invention of, 459 

"UNCLE TOM'S CABIN," 275 
Underground Railroad, 274, note 151 
Underwood Tariff, 411 

Union: Albany plan of. 102; among 
colonies, 110-123; of states formed. 
152-161 

Union Pacific Railroad, 417 

Unions, Labor, 393-398 

United States: formation of, 126-127; 
under Articles of Confederation, 
153^155; adopts Constitution, 158* 
161 

"United States," defeats " Mace- 
donian," 202 

United States Steel Corporation, 401- 
402 

Universities, increase of. 243-244, 427. 
See also Colleges. 

Utah: Mormons settle, 241; history 
of, 417; grants woman suffrage, 486 

Utrecht, treaty of, 100 

VAGRANCY LAWS, note 172 
Vail, Alfred, aids Morse, 253 
VaUandigham, Clement L., Southern 

sympathizer, note 164 
Valley Forge, Washington waiters at, 

131 
Van Buren, Martin: portrait, 230; 
friend of Jackson, 226; president, 
230; presidential candidate. 270 
Venezuela: boundary dispute, 381- 

382: finances of, 384 
Venice, trade routes of, 5 
Vera Cruz, in Mexican War, 268 
Vergennes, French statesman, 133 
Vermont, history of, 192-193 
Verrazano, Giovanni da, French ex- 
plorer, 13 
Vespucius, Americus: visits America, 
10; America named for, 10, note 8 
Veto Power: of king. 95; of governor, 

95; of president, 164 
Vice-President, how elected, 164 
Vicksburg, siege of,- 309-310 
Villa, Mexican bandit, 412 
Vincennes: captured, 140; built, 217 
Virgin Islands, purchase of, 413 
Virginia: named, 15; settled, 23-25; 
charter of 1609, 24; important 
events in, 27; population ot, 28, 29; 
rebellion in, 30; governor's recep- 
tion, 71; schools in, 78; church of, 81; 



582 



THE INDEX 



agriculture in, 88; has committee 
of secret correspondence, 115; 
ringleader in Revolution, 122; 
favors independence, 126; keeps 
Kentucky, 156; ratifies Constitu- 
tion, 161; builds canals, 211; at- 
tempts compromise, 289-290; se- 
cedes, 294 
"Virginia Plan," 158 
Virginia Resolutions, 184-185 
Vocational training, 428-429 
Vote. See Suffrage. 

"WAIT-A-BIT" TREATIES, 384 
Wall Street, named, note 33 
Walpole, Robert, English statesman, 

100 

"War Boards," work of, 471 

"War Democrats," 312 

War for the Union, 292-322; cost of, 
323-324, 325-327 

"War Hawks," 197-198 

War of 1812, 199-206 

War Savings Stamps, 473 

War with Mexico, 267-270 

War with Spain, 367-373; results of, 
373 

Warren, General Joseph (A), at 
Bunker Hill, 121 

Warwick, settled, 50 

Washington, George: portrait, fron- 
tispiece; education of, 80; in French 
and Indian War, 101-102, 103-104; 
supports Boston, 117; expresses 
loyalty, 121; appointed commander- 
in-chief, 122-123; retreat up the 
Hudson, 128; plots against, 132, 
note 78, in New York, 136; at York- 
town, 144-146; resigns commission. 
147-148; lavois federation, 155; 
in Constitutional Convention, 158, 
159, notes 93, 94; president,- 177- 
178, issues Proclamation of Neu- 
trality, 181-182; death of, 183; 
favors national university, 244; 
family of, notes 43, 45, refuses 
English pardon, note 73; donates 
services, note 90; in West, notes 
50, 51, 105, monuments to, note 113 

Washington, Martha, at Valley Forge, 
131 

Washington, Colonel William (A.), 
at Cowpens, note 85 

Washington: history of. 416; grants 
woman suffrage. 486 

Washington, D. C: burned, 203; 
ihreateneti by Confederates, 302, 
316; location of, note 117 

Washingtonians, 249 

Watauga, founded, 139 

Watertown, Mass., settled, 43 



Wayne, Anthony ("Mad Anthony"), 
at Stony Point, 137; defeats Indi- 
ans, 194 
Weaver, James B., presidential candi- 
date, 344, 349 
Webster, Daniel: opposes tariff, 206; 
Whig leader, 229; debate with 
Hayne, 259; favors tariff, 259; 
makes "Seventh of March" speech, 
273; death of, 274 
Welfare Work, 400-401 
Wesley, Charles, colonial preacher. 37 
Wesley, John, colonial preacher, 37 
West: French in, 101-102; Revolu- 
tion in, 138-140; settlement of. 
174-177- 188-189, 206; War of 1812 
in, 200; life m, 207-208; population 
of, 216; influences politics, 223-233; 
churches of, 246-247; populism in, 
349; demands silver money, 352- 
353: irrigation in, 363-364 
West India Company, 53 
West Indies: discovered, 8; trade 
with, 93, lit, 112, 154, 196; endan- 
gered, 135; refuge for blockade run- 
ners. 298 
West Point, Arnold at. 138 
West Virginia: admission of, 294; his- 
tory of, 330 
Western Front, in World War, 474- 

475. 476-478 
Western Lands, See Public Lands. 
Western Reserve, 156 
Wethersfield, settlement of,- 49 
Weyler, Spanish commander in Cuba. 

36S 
Whig party: origin of, 228-229-; vic- 
torious in 1840, 232 opposes Mexi- 
can War, 270; death of, 274 
Whigs, of England and America, iii, 

114, 135. 146. notes 61, 89 
Whisky Ring, 342 

White House Landing, battle of, 302 
White Plains, battle of, 128 
Whitefield, George, colonial preacher, 

37. 83 
Whitman, Marcus, story of, 266 
Whitman, Walt, author, 433 
Whitney, Eli, invents cotton gin, 173 
Whittier, John Greenleaf, 245, 262 
Wildcat Banks. See Banks. 
Wilderness, battle of, 315 
Wilkes, Captain, seizes Mason and 

Slidell, 297 

William and Mary: on English throne, 

;iS' 48. 78, note 19; grants assembly 

to New York, 57; colonial policy of, 

100 

Williams, Captain, in Revolution, 141 

Williams, Roger: in Massachusetts, 

44; founds Rhode Island, 50, note 28 



THE INDEX 



583 



Williamsburg, capital of Virginia, 71 

Wilmington, Del., settlement of, 57 

Wilmot Proviso, 270, note 147 

Wilson, James: in Constitutional 
Convention, 158; supports Consti- 
tution, 162 

Wilson, Woodrow: portrait, 411; 
president, 366; makes peace treat- 
ies, 384, admmistration of 411-413; 
appeals for neutrality, 461, reelec- 
tion of, 463; asks Congress for war, 
468; at Peace Conference, 480; de- 
fends League of Nations, 481; 
career of, note 199 

Wilson Creek, battle of, 299 

Wilson Tariff Bill, 350 

Winchester, battle of. 316 

Windsor, settlement of, 49 

Winthrop, John: portrait, 43; founds 
Boston, 43 

Wisconsin, history of. 238-239 

Wister, Owen, author, 433 

Witchcraft Craze, 84 

Wolfe, James (£.): portrait, 105; at- 
tacks Quebec, 107; monument Iw, 
note 55 

Woman Suffrage: early advocate of, 
150; in New Jersey, 152; history of 
movement, 248, 484-488 

Women: in Revolution, 149-150; 
higher education of, 431-432 

Wood, Colonel Leonard: in Spanish 
War, 370; career of., note 203 



Woolens Bill, 92 

Workingmen's Compensation, 399- 

400 
World War, 460-489, financing of, 

473; effects of. 481-484 
World's Fairs, 354-355. note 186 
"World's Work," 434 
Wright Brothers, invent airplane, 

457-458 
Writs of Assistance, 112 
Wyoming: history of. 416-417; grants 

woman suffrage, 486 
Wyoming Valley, massacre of, 137 



X-RAYS, 459 

X. Y. Z. Affair, 184, note 114 

YALE COLLEGE: founded, 79: wel- 
comes Washington, 122 
Yancey, William Lowndes: portrait, 

219, southern leader, 219 
Yeardley, governor of Virginia, 27 
Yellow fever: in Cuba, 372; in Pan- 
ama, 375-376 
Y. M. C. A., 470 

York, Duke of, and New York, 56 
Yorktown, siege of, 144-146 
Young, Brigham, Mormon leader, 241 
Y. W. C. A., 470 



ZENGER, PETER, trial of, 81 



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